CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(Monographs) 


ICMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


C«wdlw  Institute  for  Mtatcrlcal  Mk»orH«Hliictlon8  /  Inrtlta^ 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibllographiques 


The  InstHutt  has  alttmptcd  to  obtain  th«  btst  original 
copy  avaBabIt  for  filming.  Featurts  of  this  copy  which 
may  bt  bibliographicany  unique,  which  may  altar  any  of 
tha  Imagas  in  tha  reproduction,  or  which  may 
significantly  change  the  usual  method  of  filming  are 
checked  below. 

(~7|  Coloured  covers  / 
l^  Couverture  de  couleur 

0  Covers  damaged  / 
Couverture  endommag^ 

□  Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Couverture  restaur^  et/ou  peBicuiie 

Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  g^raphiques  en  couleur 


D 


Coloured  U\k  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  /* 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  rtoire) 


r~7|  Cok)ured  plates  and/or  iOustrattons  / 


D 
D 
D 


D 


□ 


Planches  et/ou  illustratk>ns  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Reti^  avec  d'autres  documents 

Only  edition  available  / 
Seule  Mitton  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortton  atong 
interior  margin  /  La  reliure  serr^e  peut  causer  de 
rombre  ou  de  la  distorston  le  k>ng  de  la  marge 
int^rieure. 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restorations  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
orrMed  from  filming  /  II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajouties  lors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  texte.  mais,  lorsque  cela  itait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  M  film^es. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentaires  suppMmenlaires: 


L'Instilut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire  qu'il  lui  a 
M  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details  de  cet  exem- 
plaire qui  sont  peut-Atre  unk^ues  du  point  de  vue  bibli- 
ographk)ue.  qui  peuvent  modifier  une  image  reproduite. 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modificatton  dans  la  metho- 
ds normale  de  filmage  sont  indk^u^s  ci-dessous. 

I     I  CokHjred  pages  /  Pages  de  couleur 

I     I  Pages  damaged  /  Pages  ertdommag^es 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaurtes  et/ou  pelliculies 


D 

0  Pages  discotoured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
Pages  d^colortes,  tachetdes  ou  piqu^es 

I     I  Pages  detached  /  Pages  dilach^es 

I     I  Showthrough/ Transparence 

r~7|  Quality  of  print  varies/ 


D 
D 


D 


Quaint  inigale  de  Hmpresston 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Comprend  du  matiriel  suppl^menlalre 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips, 
tissues,  etc.,  have  been  retilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
pailiellement  obscurcies  par  un  feuitlet  d'errata,  une 
pelure,  etc.,  ont  M  film^es  k  nouveau  de  fagon  k 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouration  or 
discotourattons  are  filmed  twice  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposant  ayant  des 
colorattons  variables  ou  des  decolorations  sont 
filmies  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilleure  image 
possible. 


This  h*m  It  (»m«d  at  tha  raductien  raUo  ehtcittcl  ttlew  / 

Ca  deeumant  ast  fUm4  au  Uux  da  rMuctlen  IndlquI  cl-daiaeva. 


lOx 


14x 


18x 


12x 


llx 


20x 


22x 


26x 


30x 


24  X 


28x 


32x 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  hM  bacn  raproduead  ttianks 
to  th«  gansrositv  of: 

Academy  of  Medicine  Collection 
The  Toronto  Hospital 

Tho  imago*  appoaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
poaslbia  conaidaring  ttia  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tho  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  eontraet  apadfieationa. 


L'axampiaira  film*  fut  raproduit  grica  i  ia 
g4n«rosit4  do: 

Academy  of  Medicine  Collection 
Tile  Toronto  Hospital 

Loa  imagaa  tuivantas  ont  ttt  raproduitas  avac  la 
plua  grand  soin.  eompta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattatA  da  raxampiaira  film*,  at  an 
eonformit*  avac  laa  condition*  du  contrat  da 
fNmaga. 


Original  eopioa  in  printad  p^ar  eovora  ara  fllmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  eovor  and  anding  on 
tho  iaat  paga  with  a  printad  or  Hluatratad  impraa- 
aion.  or  tho  back  eovar  whan  appropriata.  All 
othor  original  eopioa  ara  fllmad  baginning  on  tha 
firat  paga  whih  a  printad  or  Hluatratad  Impraa- 
•ion.  and  anding  on  the  iaat  paga  wMi  a  printad 
or  Hluatratad  impraaaion. 


Laa  aiiamplairaa  originaux  don*  la  couvortura  an 
papiar  aat  imprim«a  aont  filmte  an  commanpant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  aoit  par  la 
danMra  paga  qui  eomporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraaaion  ou  d'lHuatration.  toit  par  la  second 
plat,  salon  lo  caa.  Tous  los  autras  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  fllmda  an  common^ant  par  la 
pramMra  paga  qui  eomporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraaaioh  ou  dlNuatration  ot  an  tarminant  par 
la  damiira  paga  qui  comporto  uno  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  Iaat  racordad  frame  on  ooch  microfleho 
shaH  contain  tha  symbol  — ^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  ▼  (moaning  "END"), 
whiehover  appliaa. 


Un  dee  symbolos  suivents  spperaltra  sur  ia 
darniere  image  do  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  la  symbole  — ^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE".  le 
symbole  ▼  signifie  "FIN". 


Mapa,  platae.  charta.  etc..  mey  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  retioa.  Thotto  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  expoaura  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  comer,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  aa  many  framee  aa 
required.  The  following  diagrama  illuatrate  the 
method: 


Laa  cartea.  planchee.  tableeux.  etc..  peuvent  *tre 
filmte  i  des  taux  da  rMuction  differonts. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  itra 
reproduit  en  un  soul  clich*.  ii  est  film*  i  partir 
da  Tangle  supMeur  geuche.  do  gauche  i  droite. 
ot  do  haut  en  boa.  an  prenent  le  nombre 
d'imegea  nicaesaira.  Las  diagrammes  suivents 
IHustrant  le  mAthodo. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Mtaocon  moumoN  nsr  omit 

(ANSI  ond  SO  TEST  CHAUT  No.  2) 


1.0 


1.1 


-Itt   I 

U    I 


IM 


IM 


2.5 
2.2 

2.0 


■  •[25   iU     IL6 


^ 


1WJ  t1  iMn  Stmt 


6^  HYGIENE 

FOR  CHILDREN 

£.ADIB 


VNIVERSITT   PVBLISHINQ 

COMPANY 


PHYSIOLOGY  MJ  HYGIENE 

FOR  CHILDREN 


DV 

TIOBEUT    EAJ)IE 

Principal  of  School  72,  HorouRli  of  Queens, 
New  Vork  City, 

AND 

ANDREW;  EADIE,  M.l).>  ' 

Pron-ssor  of  Physiology,  Ontario  Medical 
College  for  Women,  Toronto,  Canada. 


•^U.-i- 


UNIVERSITY    PUBLISIIINO    COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW       tHKKANH 


NBW  YORK 


1904 


^MifaMMaaa 


roi-ruioiiT.  III04, 
Bv  rNivEKsrrv  itiimshinm;  co. 

KntKHEIp    at   STATIClNfBH'    HaLI.. 
LliNIIIIN.   Enulanii. 


fr- 


It  i«  important  that  ov.ry  boy  u.ul  girl  nimll  lu-como  fa.niliar. 
wh  le  at  school,  with  ti»e  priu.ary  h.w«  of  healti.      A  knowledge 
r      ho  Ktrueture   of  the   body,   its  part«.  and   the.r   uses.  .« 
Lf:.udationf.>r  an  intelligent  understanding  of  these  laws 
A^aton^y  and  physiology  are,  therefore,  treated  here  clnetly  as 
un  aid  to  the  teaehi.ig  of  hygiene. 

In  order  that  .-hildren  may  readily  understand  the  sto.>  o 
their  bodies,  it  is  told  in  clear,  si.nple  language,  and  w.th  a 
minimum  of  technical  terms. 

Z.  car„  ha,  be»n  taken  iu  th.  traatn-ent  „t  ca,!,  .hapter 
..,„  nic  to  ol..rv»  the  relative  ■■„,«,rta„ce  of  the  v»r,„u, 
C  J.  Tho».  which  have  more  important  tnnet.on,  are  .le- 
"crib  d  in  greater  .letail  than  tho,e  whose  tnnetton.  are  le. 
lortant  The  interdependence  of  organ,  ha.  al.o  heen  k  p 
prominently  in  view,  in  order  that  the  pnpd  may  reahze  h 
Zl  learning  ahont  an  active  living   hcly,  an.l    not  ahont 

""T;:'vr-of  .^i,  ho„k  a,  a  teaching  in,tr ent  i,  gre.j«y 

enhanced  by  the  be,t  illnstration,  that  could  to  obtained.  Ihc 
anthor,  were  given  c„r„  Haurk.  by  the  pnbli.her,.  and  .n- 
Icted  to  spare  no  e.„cn«  in  .curing  P>--  *-;»:, 
iUnrtrate  the  text  in  the  h.,t  po8,.ble  manner.  Color  has  b.u, 
used  to  make  the  ilhtstrations  more  attractive,  and  also  to  n.akc 


•^^3-i3 


PRKFACE 


it  easier  to  (lijrerontiuto  parts,  but  tluro  lias  been  no  uniform 
attempt  to  imitati'  tiio  natural  color  of  the  parts. 

Tlie  law  requiring,'  that  twcnty-tive  per  cent,  of  the  text  mat- 
ter shall  treat  of  '*  the  luiture  and  effects  of  alcoholir  drinks 
and  other  narcotics  "  has  been  complied  with.  The  injurious 
effect  of  alcolu)!  upon  different  orjrans  is  stated  plainly  and  con- 
cisely :  and,  in  additiou  (o  that,  as  much  emphasis  as  possible 
has  been  placed  upon  the  positive  benefits  in  improved  health 
and  strength  which  arise  from  abstinence  from  the  use  of  alco- 
holic drinks  and  tol)ac"o.  In  order  that  this  lesson  may  make 
a  deep  and  lastinj;  impression,  it  is  presented  in  the  concrete 
form  of  letters  written  by  men  whose  opinions  will  at  onco  be 
accepted  as  worthy  of  confidence. 

The  authors  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  their  obligations 
to  the  gentlemen  who  kii'dly  furnished  the  letters  contained 
herein,  and  also  to  Mr.  M.  Aiiagnos.  Director  of  The  Kinder- 
garten for  the  IMind,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  for  annual  reports  con- 
taining the  story  of  Thomas  Stringer. 


CONTENTS 

riiArTKB 

1.  -IsTRonrcTioN      .•••■* 

II.__lloSKH 

111.— Mf!**''--''      .  •  •  ■ 

IV.— TiiK  Foru  KiNiw  ok  Foon 

V  —DiKKKUKNT   AllTK  IKS   OK    '''ooP 

VI -How  Oiii  Food  is  Cha:     <   •  into  l.cou 
YII  -How   niK  ni.oo!.  15.  M.PH  1 1'  tiik  l\vm    . 
VlIl.-DitiNKS  Whkii  Coma.n   .M.COII..I.     . 

IX— IJllKATIIINO 

X.— TiiK  Skin 

XI.-Thk  niuiN.  SriSAi.  C.un  and  Nkkvks 
Xll.— Tiik  Fivi.  Spmiai,  Sknsks 

Arpi-'Ni"x         .•••■■ 

Kkys •        • 

Oi.ossauy  ..•••* 

Inukx        ...•••• 


rkuu 
7 
.     17 
.     33 
.    4r» 
.     52 
.     ««) 
.     7H 
.     94 
,  10« 
.   115 
.  130 
.   141 

.  15'.) 
.  193 
.  197 
.  201 


■-^^ 


THE    OI,D    HALT- 
ri.OCK. 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    BODY 

was  a  little  boy  named  Charles,  vvli<» 
lived  ill  a  great  city.  In  the  liall  of  his 
father's  house  st(>o«l  a  tall  clock,  and 
little  Charles  used  to  stand  before  it 
and  watch  the  heavy  penduhini  swing 
hack  and  forth,  and  listen  to  the  reg- 
ular tick-tock,  tick-tock,  like  a  voice 
8l)eaking  to  him.  At  times  he  woidd 
hear  a  sudden  click,  and  then  out  would 
ring  a  bell,  clear  and  sweet,  telling  that 
another  hour  had  passed. 

What  made  the  pendulum  swing  ^ 
What  nia<le  the  hands  go  round? 
What  made  the  bell  ring  at  exactly  the 
right  time  every  hour  i  T.ittle  Charles 
coidd  not  tell.  So  day  after  day  he 
would  stand  and  watch  the  old  clock 


and  wonder  about  it. 


8 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOlt  CHILDUEX 


One  iiiorniug   when  he  eaine  down 
stairs  there  was  no  sound  in  the  hall. 
He  looked  up  at  the  clock  and  saw  that 
the  i)enduluni  was  still.   The  clock  liad 
stopped.     Later  in  the  day  a  strange 
man  came  to  fix  it.     Charles  watched 
him  as  he  took  off  the  front.      Inside 
were  wheels  and  chains  and  weio-hts. 
The  man  took  the  wheels  out  one  by 
one,  polished  them,  oiled  them,  and  put 
them  back,  fitting  each  part  nicely  to 
the   other.      Then    he   wound    up  the 
weights,  put  the   front   on    the  clock 
again,  started  the  i)endulum  to  swing- 
ing, and  once  more  Charles  heard  the 
pleasant  tick-tock,  tick-tock,  to  which  lie 
loved  to  listen.     Now  he  knew  what  made  the  hands 
go  round,  the  i)endulum  move,  and  the  bell  ring.     It 
was  the  wheels  and  the  chains  and  the  weights  inside. 
While  Charles  had  often  wondered  about  the  clock, 
he  had  never  thought  very  much  about  himself.     And 
yet  a  boy  is  much  more  wondei'ful  than  a  clock.     It 
can  move  its  hands  only  round  and  round;  he  can 
move  his  hands  in  every  direction.     It  can  say  only 
tick-tock;  he  can  say   whatever  he  wishes,      It   c^i 


INSIDH  TilE   CLOCK. 


TllK   BODY 


9 


stand  only  wliere  it  is  placed;  he  can  run  and  jump 
and  play.  What  gives  a  boy  the  power  to  do  all 
these  thinoH?     AVould  you  like  to  know  ? 

The  body  of  a  boy,  like  the  body  of  a  clock,  has 
many  stran-e  thin-s  *inside-not  wheels,  chains  and 
Nvei<-hts,  but  other  things  which  are  just  as  strange, 
ancrwhie-h  all  work  together.  The  picture  on  page  11 
shows  part  of  a  body  with  the  front  taken  off.  Look 
at  it  an<l  you  will  see  some  of  tliese  things. 

From  tiiis  little  book  you  can  learn  something  about 
your  body  and  the  things  inside  it.  Each  chapter 
iells  you  the  name  of  some  part  of  the  body,  how  it 
looks,  and  where  it  is ;  that  is  anatomy.  Next,  it  tells 
you  the  use  of  each  part;  that  is  physiolooy.  And 
then  it  tells  you  how  to  take  care  of  each  part;  that 

is  IIYOIENE. 

The  b<»ay.— We  often  call  that  part  of  a  tnan  which 
you  see  in  the  picture  the  body,  but  its  real  name  is 
the  trvnh  The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  is  the  chent, 
the  lower  part  is  the  ahdonun.  Joined  to  the  tnmk 
are  the  head,  arms  and  legs.     All  these  together  make 

the  body. 

Orjrjiiis The  works  of  a  clock  are  called  a  ma- 
chine. They  are  made  to  do  special  work,  and  are 
afterwai'ds   put   into   the   body  of  the   clock.     The 


10 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOR  CIIILDliEN 


strange  things  that  you  8ee  in  the  chest  and  abdomen 
also  do  special  Avork,  but  they  are  called  oro-ans. 
They  grow  in  the  body  from  the  first,  and  are  parts 
of  it.  Each  part  of  the  body  that  does  special  work 
is  called  an  organ.  The  eye  is  an  organ  of  sight.  The 
ear  is  an  organ  of  hearing.     The  hands  and  feet  also 


are  organs. 


Many  organs  are  very  delicate,  and  so  we  find  them 
placed  in  hollow  cases  of  bone,  called  cavities,  to  kee^ 
them  from  being  injui-ed.  For  this  reason  the  brain, 
which  is  the  organ  of  the  mind,  is  shut  up  in  the 
skull,  and  many  important  organs  are  shut  up  in  the 
large  cavities  of  the  trunk. 

Look  at  the  picture  on  page  1 1  and  you  will  see  the 
ribs  and  the  breast  bone,  which  jMotett  the  cavities. 
Behind  the  ribs  aie  oi'gans  called  lungs.  In  the  centie 
of  the  neck  ycni  can  see  a  tube  called  the  windpipe, 
whicli  extends  upwards  from  the  lungs.  The  air 
which  you  breathe  passes  through  the  windpipe  into 
the  lungs.  Both  the  lungs  and  the  windpipe  have 
been  colore*!  purple  in  the  picture. 

Turn  to  the  picture  on  page  U.  The  ribs  have 
been  taken  off,  one  lung  has  been  taken  (Mit,  and  the 
other  lung  has  been  drawn  back  so  that  you  can  see 
the  cavity  of  the  chest.     There  you  \vill  see  an  organ 


A    V1E\-    OF   THE    INSIDK  '»F    THK    TRUNK. 

iS«f  ApiK'iulix  for  Ki-y.i 


Id 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


culle<l  tlie  lieart,  colored  red.     Above  the  heart  are  red 
and  blue  tubes  which  ir<>  from  it  to  other  j)arts  of  the 
body.     Just  under  the  heai't  and  luui^s  you  can  see 
the  ])ai-tition  Avhich  .se])arates  the  chest  from  the  ab- 
domen.    Below  this  })artition  is  an  organ  called  the 
liver.    Below  the  liver  is  the  stomach.    In  tie  picture 
the  liver  has  been  colored  brown,  and  the  stonnich  yel- 
low, with  red  lines  over  it.     A  tube  goes  from  the 
mouth  down  to  the  stomach.     It  is  just  behind  the 
windpij>e,  and  so  cannot  be  shown  in  the  picture.     It 
is  through  this  tube  that  food  j)asses  from  the  mouth 
to  the  stomach.      Below  the  stomach,  neatly  fohled 

and    curled    up,  is   the 
intestine. 

Although  the  body 
has  many  organs,  all 
woik  together  and  help 
one  another.  If  one 
oi'gan   is   in    pain    and 

THE     CELLS     OF    AX     ORAXGE:     LITTLE       camiOt         do        itS         USUal 
SACS   FULL    OF  JUICE.  "Oii.ii 

work,  other  organs  share 
the  injury  and  are  unable  to  do  their  work  Well. 

Cells.— If  you  cut  open  a  rii)e  orange  and  pick  it 
apart  carefully,  you  will  find  that  it  is  made  up  of  a 
great  number  of  little  sacs  which  are  full  of  juice. 


THE  BODY 


13 


These  are  called  cells.  They  are  packed  closely  and 
are  held  together  by  siiiall  threa«ls,  <»r  fibres.  The 
fibres  in  the  orange  are  found  either  as  small  tiireads, 
or  woven  together  in  thin  sheets  like  tissue  paper. 

All  vegetables  and  animals  are  made  up  of  cells. 
Every  part  of  your  body,  every  organ  in  it,  all 
your  nmscles  and  bones,  y».ur  skin  ami  hair  are  built 
up  of  cells.  Most  cells  are  so  small  that  you  cannot 
see  them  unless  they  «re  made  to  look  much  larger 
than  they  really  are  by  the  use  of  a  microscope.  This 
is  true,  for  example,  of  the  cells  of  a  grair.  of  wheat, 
a  potato  or  a  blade  of  grass.  It  is  aiso  true  of  the 
cells  of  muscle,  bone,  skin,  and  hair. 

Cells  are  held  together  by  little  fibres.  Many  of 
these  fibres  are  joined  together  into  sheets,  or  tissues. 
Because  these  tissues  connect  cells  and  hold  them 
together,  they  nre  called  connective  tissue. 

Oiowtli  aiul  health  of  the  body — We  grow 
rapidly  in  early  life.  As  the  years  pass  by  we  grow 
more  and  more  slowly,  but  continue  to  grow  until 
about  our  twenty-fifth  year.  Part  of  a  child's  food  is 
used  to  make  him  grow,  and  so  he  requires  more  to 
eat  in  proportion  to  his  size  than  a  grown  person  does. 

Exercise  and  work  that  is  not  too  hanl  produce 
growth  and  health. 


ANOTHEIt    VIKW    OF    IHK    I.\SII)K    OK   THK    TKUNK. 
(St-e  A|ip('iiilix  fur  Ki\.) 


THK    BODY 


15 


l*laiii  wholesome  food  iiiul  inire  «lniikini;  water  are 
necessary  to  liea.tli. 

I  sunshine  are  also  necessary  for  health 


Pure  air  an« 


an<l  irrowth.     Notice  the  sickly  plants  that  are  kept 

ndow,  or  in  a  cellar,  where  the 


too  1 


onir  iu  H  north  wi 


sun  cannot  shine  on  them.  Notice,  too,  how  j»ale  are 
the  unfortunate  chihlren  who  are  crippled  and  unaMe 
to  run  ahout  outdoors.  Whatever  else  you  may  he 
afrai<l  of,  never  be  afraid  <)f  sunshine  ami  fresh  air. 

The  use  of  alcoholic  li«|Uors  an«l  tol)acco  often  in- 
jures the  health. 

The  followinu;  extract  is  from  a  speech  by  the 
Hon.  C'hauncey  M.  Depew,  and  udves  the  result  of 
the  use  of  alcoholic-  li(pior  which  he  observed  in  the 
home  of  his  boyhood  : 


Tweiitytive  yoars  ugo  I  knew  every  mun,  woiniui  and  child 
ill  I'eekslall,  tiiid  it  has  been  u  study  with  me  to  mark  boys 
who  started  in  every  grade  of  life  with  myself,  ht  see  what  has 
become  of  them.  I  was  up  last  fall  and  began  to  count  them 
over.  It  was  an  instructive  exhibit.  Some  of  them  became 
clerks,  merchants,  manufacturers,  lawyers,  doctors. 

It  is  remarkable  that  every  one  of  those  that  drank  is  dead  ; 
not  one  living  of  my  age.  liarring  a  few  who  were  taken  off 
by  sickness,  every  one  who  proved  a  wreck  and  wrecked  his 
family,  did  it  from  rum  and  no  other  cause. 

Of  those  who  were  church-going  people,  who  were  steady, 


16 


PIIY.SIOLOOY   von  CIIILDRKN 


iiuhistrious  und  Ijard-working  men,  who  were  frugal  and  thrifty, 
every  single  one  of  them,  without  an  exception,  owns  the  house 
in  whieh  he  lives  and  has  .somethinf;  laid  l)y,  the  interest  on 
which,  with  his  house,  would  carry  him  through  many  a  rainy 
day.     [77/c  Voice,  March  :»0,  ISUO.J 

The  following  was  received  iu  re[)ly  to  a  re<|uest 
for  j)eriJii.i.sioii  to  publish  the  above  extract : 

rsiTKi)  States  Skkatk, 
Wam  .xgtox,  I).  C,  Marc//  1,  1900. 
Dear  Sir:  — I  am  in  receipt,  through   Mr.  A.  J  I.  Howe,  of 
your  letter  of  Vvh.  !Hh. 

You  are  at  liherty  to  use  the  extract  from    my  speech,  of 
which  you  inclose  a  co])y,  if  you  so  desire. 

Yours  very  truly, 

CifArxcKV  M.  Dkpkw. 

Wc  have  lenriied  that : 

1.  Tlie  body  consists  of  <li^lill(•t  piirts. 

3.  Aiiiitomy  tells  iis  what  the  dilTereiit  piirts  of  the  body  are  like 

3.  Physiology  tells  lis  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  the  body. 

4.  Hygiene  tells  us  how  to  take  care  of  the  body. 

5.  An  organ  is  any  part  of  the  body  that  has  a  special  work  to  do. 

6.  Some  of  the  most  important  organs,  such  as  the  brain  and  heart,  are 
contained  in  cavities  in  the  body. 

7.  The  body  is  made  up  of  cells  held  together  by  connective  tissue. 

8.  The  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  and  tobacco  often  injures  health. 


fifty, 

louse 
st  on 
rainy 

uest 


)0. 
..,  of 

li,  of 


w. 


:,  are 


CUAPTKU  II 

MONKS 

The  framework  of  the  horty.— In   tliis   picture 
vou  cm  nee  a  cottai?e  wliicli  cari .filters  are  l.uil.lui-. 

They  have  fastened  to- 
gether   strong    pieces 
of     timber,    to    make 
the  frjimework.     This 
framework    will    give 
shape  to  the  cottage, 
and  support  its  parts. 
T„E  ruAMKw..HK  ..F  A  <  .nTAOK.         The     carpeutei-g    will 
nail  boards  and  shingles  upon  the  outside  and  will 
lay  floors  and  put  in  doo,-s  and  windows.     The  frame- 
work will  suppoi-t  all 
of  these,  and  the   fin- 
ished cottage  will 
look  like  the  one    in 
the  second  picture. 

The  human  body 
has  a  framework  of 
bones  wbicli  gives  to 
the   body  its   general 


THE  FINISHED   COTTAGE. 


18 


IMIYsiOLOtlV    FitR  CUlUiKKS 


cll 


THK   FBAMKWORK,   OR   SKELETO.V 


,    OF  THE    nODY. 


BONKS 


l'.» 


m 


.hane.  It  supports  the  flenli  Nvhicli  i«  laid  over  it,  and 
als<.  protects  the  teiuler  parts  of  the  UAy  whieh  are 
nlaoed  within  it.  If  the  skin  an,l  flesh  were  ren.ove.1 
from  a  IkkIv,  so  that  you  couhl  see  thin  framework, 
which  we  call  the    skeleton,  it  wouM  look   like  the 

i>icture  on  pajje  18.  .11 

What    boneH    are    made    «f.     Bone    is    a    hard 
Hubstance.    You  can  find    ut  by  two  littl>>  experiinentM 
sonietliinj,^    about    the     niaterials    of 
which  bone  is  made. 

Place  a  bone  in  a  hot  Hre  for 
three  or  four  hours.  It  vill  keep  its 
shape,  UD  matter  how  long  you  burn 
it;  but  if  you  try  to  handle  it  after 
it  is  burned,  it  will  crumble  to  pieces. 
The  part  of  a  bone  that  remains  af- 
ter it  has  been  burned  is  cuiled  min- 
eral matter. 

Get   two   ounces   of   nuiriatic   acid 

at   a  drug   store,   and    put    the   aci«l 

and   a   pint   of   water   int<»   a  bottK. 

Then  put   the  leg-bone  of  a  chicken 

into  the    bottle,  and  leave    it    there 

four  days.     When  you  take  the  bone   o\it,  you  will 

find  it  so  soft  that  it  can  be  tied  into  a  knot.     The 


A  rHKKKN's 
LEG-MC)NE  TIED 
INTO    A    KNOT. 


20 


PIirsiOLOGY   Foit  ClIILDUEX 


IK 
H 


part  Of  a  Ixme  that  mnains  after  it  Las  l,een  in  aeul 
IS  called  annual  matter. 

The  fire  b.n-ned  away  tl.e  animal  matter  of  one 
bone  an<l  tl.e  acid  <lissolved  out  tl.e  n.ineral  n.atter  „f 
tlie  other  (jone. 

The  aniii,al  matter  iu  hone  resen.l.Ie,   .rrfsHe      I, 
miikes  tlie  bones  tough.  '^ 

The  mineral  nnitt'er  consists  lai-gel,-  „(  li,„e      u 
ni.-ikes  the  bones  hard  and  strong 

I"  early  life  the  bones  are  eh^stic  and  will  bend 
before  t  ey  break.  As  people  gr.nv  old  their  bones 
bee«n,e  ess  elastic  and  ,„„re  brittle.  It  was  Ion. 
taugh    that  tins  brittlenesa  was  caused  by  a  loss  o°f 

;:"""•    «"■  ."'«•   «■'   '•-•--   of  mineral   matter. 

Aow,  however,  ,t  ,s  taught  that  bones  becon.e  brittle 

."..tter.    On   ac-ount  of  this  loss  the  bones  of  old 
people  are  not  stmng  and  bi-eak  easily 
Hmv   .,„„.,  .„„h._lf  you  e.xan.ine'a  short  or  a 

flat  bone  w, eh  has  been  well  dried,  you  will  find 

hat  the  outer   part   is   hard   an.l   fir,n.     When   the 

>>one  .s  br-ken,  the  inner  part  is  seen  to  be  like  a 

3'"^'  " f  ->f  I'"'--     The  holes  in  the  .,,K.„„y 


BONES 


21 


A  long  l)oiie  consists  of  a  icuiid  sluift,  with  enlarged 
eiuls.     The  n.ateiial  cf  the  ends  is  like  that  of  a  sl.ort 
bene.     If  you  saw  the  shaft  across,  you  will  see  a  ring 
of   hard  bone  with  a  hollow  space 
running    through   it   from   end   to 
end.      This  hollow  space,  when  the 
bone  is  fresh,    contains    a  yellow 
substance     called    niairow,    which 
consists   largely  of   fat    and   small 
blood  tubes. 

A  fresh  bone  is  jnnkish   white, 
because  it  contains  blood. 

An  old  dried  bone  is  white,  be- 
cause it   has    lost    the    blood  tliat 

was  in  it. 

Joints.— In  order  that  the  btmes 
of  the   body   may    make  a  frame- 
work  tliey   must   be   fastened    to- 
gether, just  as  pieces  of  tindjer  nuist 
be  fastened   together  to  make  the 
framework  of  a  cottage.     A  place 
in  the  skeleton  where  bones  are  fastened  together  is 
called   a  joint.    Every  one  has  seen  the   hinges  on   a 
door.     They  are  simply  joints  of  metal,  which  allow 
the  door  to  open  an.l  close.     Many  of  our  joints  are 


23 


I'irvsr()L<)(;Y   FOK   <  HILIujk.x 


To  understand  the  value  of  such  Joints  you  I.ave 

he     Wv  or  to  w,.te  without  bending  your  finge,.  at 
the^knuekJes^r  to  walk  without  bending  your  T<„ees. 
■^  *^  ^'*'"e  joints,  like  those  of  the 

elbow  an<l  shoulder,  allow  the 
l)ones  to  move  freely.  Others, 
like  those  of  the  spine,  allow  the' 
bones  to  move  only  slightly; 
while  the  joints  of  the  skull  are' 
fixed— they  do  not  allow  the 
bones  to  move  at  all. 

The  ends  of  the  bones  at 
joints  which  allow  movement 
are     covered     with     a    tough, 

.n . .         1  •  ,   .     ,        ""*'"*''    '^nbstance     called    car- 
tilage,  which  IS  elastic  like  rubber 

The  b<.nes  are  held  together  at  the  joints  by  short 
toug  ,  w,,,e,  glistening  bands  of  connective't   sTe 

^Mlst  and  the  hand  m  this  picture 

gieut  f,*e.lou,  „f  ,„ove,„ent;  yet  they  „„  ,tr„„g,  and 


MOAMK.Nrs  OF    UHIST 
AM)   HAND. 


1«>NKS 


28 


tough,    and    liold    the  ])ones 
securely  in  their  riglit  places. 
The  hin<;e8  of  a  door  some- 
times   work    with    diiticulty. 
A  drop   or   two  of   oil   will 
cause  them   to  move   freely. 
Many  of  our  joints  are  su[»- 
plied  with  a  fluid  which  helps 
them  to  mov'  <'asily,  as  oil 
helps  the  hinges.     The  inner 
surfaces    of     the     liiranients 
have    a    smooth    liniMg,    in 


HONES  OF  THE  WIUST  AND  HAND. 

^.hich  enough  of  this 
fluid  is  maxle  to  keep 
the  ends  of  the  bones 
slippery,  so  that  they 
move  smoothly  upon 
one  another. 

Chief  bones  of  the 
body.— It  takes  a  great 
many  bones  to  make 
the  skeleton.  There  are 
about  two  hundred. 
This  seems  a  large  num- 


HONES   OF   ANKLE   AND   FOOT. 


24 


riIYSlOLO(JY   FOU  CIIILDKEX 


her,  but  all  are  „ee,Ie,I.     Eacl,  L,.,  i,s  o,v„  ,.Iace  and 
Its  own  use.  ' 

Look  at  the  i,ictuies  on  imge  28  a„,l  compare  the 
bone,  ..the  wrist  a„,l  hand  with  tho.e  of  the  ankM  ad 
f  H.t.     The  wnst  an,l  hand  contai,.  twenty-seven  bones 
Can   von  fin.I  then,  all  in  the  ,,iet,„.'    The  allt 

l-.an. ..     rhere  are  e,:  .,t  sn.all  l„,ne8  in  the  UTist  and 

-ven  n,    he  ankle  and  ,nste,,.     II„,.  „„„,  ,,„      '"^l 

"  the  Hn.  of  the  hand  ?    IW  n,„ny  in 'the  f  1  Te 

ween    he  „.te,,  and  the  toes?    IW  „,anv  in  the 

f"g«s  ?     The  bones  of  the  wrist,  ha«,l,  an.l  fin^era  are 

2„te.  These  ),ga„,entH  are  so  elastic  that  th;  hand 
and  finge,^  oa„  n,ove  ra,,i,l|y  an.l  easily  in  differt^t 
k.n.»   ..f  work  and  play.     The   bones  "of  tl      f» 

ettt;i::r"""^^  "■'"-*•- ^--"-^ 

.    .an  e  plan,  yet  they  serve  very  ,liffere„t  pnrZes 
it  IS  not  easy  to  use  fJiP  f^«f  „.  .     ^  '"r"^^®- 

l-M  and  haLle      n^  bl" l!. M! /'^  ""  ^"'*'  *" 
+1     1  .  "".-'''»  'Jecaihse  the  toes  are  short  nnA 

tl..'1'ones.Ohe  great  toe  lie  side  by  side,  or  p1"m 


BONES 


25 


with  the  bones  of  the  other  toes.  The  l)ones  of  the 
thumb  are  not  parallel  with  tliose  of  the  fingers,  but 
are  so  arranged  that  the  tip  of  the  thumb  can  be 
made  to  touch  the  tips  of  the  fingers.  This  is  im- 
portant, for  it  gives  us  power  to  grasp  and  hohl 
with  the  hands. 

Now  turn  back  to  the  picture  of  the  skeleton  on 
page  18  and  compare  the  bones  of  the  arm  with  those 
of  the  leg.  How  many  bones  do  ycni  find  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  elbow  i  From  the  hip  to  the  knee  ? 
There  is  one  small  bone  which  forms  the  front  of 
the  knee  and  protects  it.  It  is  called  the  knee-cap. 
The  elbow  has  no  such  bone.  IIow  many  bones 
extend  from  the  elbow  to  the  wrist?  IIow  many 
extend  from  the  knee  to  the  ankle?  Which  is  the 
largest  bone  in  the  skeleton  ? 

The  backbone,  or  spii;-,  is  made  up  of  thirty-three 
bones,  which  are  placed  one  u[)on  another  like  spools 
on  a  str*  In  children  each  bone  is  separated  from 

the  one  ve  it  and  fom  the  one  below  it  by  a  thin 
layer  of  cartilage.  This  cartilage  allows  the  bones  to 
move,  so  that  the  spine  may  bend  and  turn  easily.  The 
cartilage  acts  also  as  a  cushion  to  prevent  injury  from 
a  sudden  jar.  In  grown  people  the  nine  lower  bones 
of  the  spine  are  united  so  as  to  form  only  two  bones. 


26 


»MIYSI()L«»(JV   Foil  (  HILDIJKX 


THE    SI'INAL 
•  OLUJIN. 


Xntiee  this  ]uctiii-e  of  one  of  the  bones 

<'f  the  spine.    The  small  holes  on  either 

side  are  for  bl«»o(|  tubes,  wliile  tlje  large 

hole   in    the    centre   is    f(,r    a    delicate 

cord      uhicdi 

passes     down 

from  tlie  brain, 

and  is  called  the 

s])inal  cord. 

The  spine  is 
Hometinies  called 
the  s2)inal  col- 
umn, because  it 
forms   a   strong 

column,  or  i>illar,  to  sui)port  the  upper 
part  of  the  body. 

The  skull  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  bones  ^vhicll  are  joined  at  their 
edges.  The  picture  on  page  27  shows 
where  some  of  the  bones  are  joined. 

'i'he  skull  forms  a  box  that  holds  the 
brain.    In  the  front  part  of  it  are  two 
holloxN  s,  called  sockets,  for  the  eyes. 
Only  the  upper  part   of  the 'nose  is 
made  of  bone.    The  lower  par^  is  composed  of  cartilage. 


ONE    OF    THK    Hf)\ES   OF  THE 
SPI.\E. 


BONKS 


•n 


A    VIEW    OF  THE   SIDE   OF   THE 
8KUI.L. 

the  spinal  cord  extendn  from 
the  brain  downwards  into 
the  spine. 

The  ribs  form  a  bony 
eau;e  which  protects  the 
lieart  and  lungs.  All  the 
ribs  are  fastened  to  the 
si)ine,  and  most  of  them  to 
the  breast-bone.  They  are 
moved  jjently  upwards  and 
downwards  as  we  breathe. 

Look    at   the   picture   on 
the  next  page  and  tell  how 


The  lower  jaw  is 
fastened  to  tlie  skidl 
l>y  two  joints,  one  on 
each  side  of  tlie  face. 
Tlie  jaw  can  move  up 
an<l  down,  and  also 
from  side  to  side. 

The  pictuie  below 
trivesaview  of  thei>ase 
of  the  skull.  It  shows 
the  hole  throuffh  which 


A   VIEW   OF  THE   HA8E   OF  THE 
SKULL. 


S8 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CIIlLDREX 


I 


many  ribs  you  see  on  each  side,     llow  many  on  each 
side  are  fastened  directly  to  the  Im-ast-hone  ?     How 
many  are  not  fastened  to  anytliiiiij  in  fronts      How 
many  are  fastened  in  froiit  to  libs  above  them  ? 
Tlie  co]]ar-bone  can  easily  be  felt  at  tJie  upper  part  of 

your  chest  in  front.  It 
extends  from  the  shoul- 
der to  the  breast-bone, 
and  selves  as  a  prop  to 
the  shoulder. 

The  shoulder-blade,  as 
you  will  see  from  the 
picture  of  the  skeleton, 
is  a  strong  bone  which 
is  s[)read  out  like  a 
fan  over  the  uj^per  libs 
at  the  back.  At  the 
centre,  from  which   the 

THE    Itins   A.VD   nUEAST-nONE  i*  1        .  , 

fan  spreads,  is  a  shallow 
cup-hke  cavity  into  which  the  upper  end  of  the  aim. 
bone  fits,  and  makes  tlie  shoulder-joint.  The  shoulder- 
blade  is  connected  with  the  collar-bone  also. 

Hygicne.-We  often  hear  that  "as  the  twicr  is 
bent  the  tree  is  inclined."  This  is  certainly  true  of 
the  bones.     The  soft  bones  of  children  may  be  bent 


BOXE8 


29 


into  awkwar*!  sLapes  by  wrong  poMitions  and  unsuit- 
able clothing.  If  the  bending  continues,  the  bones  will 
hai-den  into  these  shapes  and  the  body  will  be  de- 
formed. 


X-KAY  PHOTOGKAPH  OF  BONES  OF 
FOOT  WITHOUT  SHOE. 


X-RAY  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  UONE3  OP 
FOOT  IN  SHOE. 


The  foot  may  be  forced  out  of  shape  by  tight,  or 
badly  fitting  shoes.  The  picture  on  the  left  was  taken 
without  the  shoe,  and  you  see  the  natural  shape  of  the 
foot.  The  picture  on  the  right  shows  how  the  bones  of 
the  foot  may  be  pressed  out  of  shape  l)y  a  tight  shoe. 


») 


I'lIYSIOLOUY    lull  (  IIILJ)KKN 


The  iil)s  may  he  jnessed  iiiwar<l  hy  ti«;lit  clothing 
about  the  waint.  In  tJiis  way  inteinar  opiranM  ai-e 
scnu'tiines  pushed  out  of  place,  so  that  they  eaiiuot 
<lu  their  work  as  they  should. 


FROM   AN    X-RAY    PHOTOGRAPH    OF   A    STRAIGHT   SPINE. 

Every  one  sho.jld  form  the  habit  of  sitting  and 
standing  ui^right.  By  constant  stooping  vou"  may 
become  round-shouldered.  If  you  form  tlie'  habit  of 
holding  your  body  in  a  onesided  or  stooping  posi- 
tiou  you  may  gradually  grow  out  of  shape,  and  you 


Honks 


81 


will    tlnd    it   very   <liftieult,    or  even    impwsihjt.,    to 
8trai<rliten  ii])  aj>;ain. 

For  tliis  reason  denkH  in  a  Hcliool-room  nIiouM  al- 
ways be  suited  to  the  lieiglit  of  pupils.     If  the  desk 


FROM    a: 


;-RAY    PHOTOGRAPH    OF    A    CURVED    SPIXE. 

is  too  high,  the  right  slioulder  is  luised  above  the  left, 
and  the  body  will  be  bent  to  one  si<le.  If  tlie  desk 
is  too  low,  the  habit  of  stooping  will  be  formed,  and 
the  pupil  will  become  round-shouldered.  Here  we  have 
the  picture  of  the  spine  of  a  gi.  •  when  she  was  seven- 


32 


IMIYSluLOdY    von  (  lilLDUKN 


teen  yeai'H  of  aife.  Her  H]>ii»e  iKTiiiue  curved  while 
slie  WHS  attendiiii;  sclmol. 

The  seat  sliouM  l»e  s«»  aiTaiii^eil  an  to  allow  the 
feet  to  rent  comfortably.  If  the  feet  have  no  hii|)- 
poit  their  weiirht  may  cause  the  tlii^h  bones  to  be 
IxMit  out  of  shape. 

A  su<hlen  twist  or  wrench  of  a  joint  may  <»ver- 
stretch  or  tear  the  liiraments  and  j>roduce  an  injury 
which  is  calle<l  a  sprain.  A  sprained  joint  should 
always  have  rest. 


We  liave  Iciciiod  that: 

1.  A  frniiiework  of  bones  jjivcs  sluiiie  to  the  IhmIv,  aiul  suipporta  and  pro- 
tet'ls  othiT  fMirls  of  it. 

2.  IJoiic  is  a  liaril  substance  composed  of  animal   nnitter  and    mineral 
matter. 

3.  The  ontcr  part  of  all  lK)nes  is  hard  and  firm,  the  inner  |>art  i»  either 
spoiijjfy  or  hollow. 

4.  .\  joint  of  the  liody  is  a  jilace  wlicre  two  bones  are  fastened  together. 

5.  The  ends  of  the  l^jncs  of  a  movable  joint  are  covered  with  cartilage, 
and  are  held  together  by  ligaments. 

6.  Movable  joints  are  furnished  with  oil. 

7.  IJones  may  be  forced  out  of  shape  and  may  remain  so. 


CIIAPTKU   III 


MISlLKS 

What  muscles  do  for  hh.— A  bit  of  stone  from 
the  mountain  side  muy  travi'l  down  to  the  seashore 
and  become  one  of  the  peb'hles  at  the  water's  edge, 
but  in  its  long  journey  it  never  moves  itself.  The 
rain  washes  it  down  into  a  stream,  and  the  stream 
carries  it  to  the  shore. 

A  seed  that  falls  to  the  ground  would  perhaps 
grow  better  in  the  soil  of  a  reighboring  field,  but  it 
cannot  get  there  unless  the  wind  carries  it.  It  has  life, 
but  it  has  no  power  to  move. 

Watch,  liowever,  the  graceful  movements  of  a  bird  as 
it  flies  from  tree  to  tree.  It  can  make  these  move- 
ments because  it  has  muscles.  The  njovements  of  all 
animals,  from  the  tiny  insect  to  the  great  elephant,  are 
due  to  muscles.  Even  the  slightest  motion  of  the 
body,  sucli  as  the  winking  of  an  eyelid,  is  produced  by 
muscles. 

When  a  ball  is  lying  on  the  floor  it  has  no  power  to 
move  itself,  and  when  rolling  it  has  no  power  to  stop 
itself.  But  if  a  boy  is  running  he  can  stop  when  he 
chooses,  because  he  has   muscles.     Our   muscles   not 


34 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOR   (HILDHKN 


THK  MUSCLES  OF  THE  SUKFACE  OF  THE  BODY. 


L 


MUSCLES 


3/) 


only  enable  us  to  move;  they  also  enable  us  to  keep 
from  moviuir.  It  is  l)v  means  of  our  uuiscles  that  we 
can  hold  an  arm  out  straight  from  the  shouhler,  and 
sit  or  stand  upri^lit.  When  we  become  weak  from  ill- 
ness, we  have  to  lie  in  bed  because  our  muscles  can- 
not hold  us  up. 

The  muscles  serve  still  another  ]>ur})«»se.  They 
cover  the  skeleton  and  give  to  the  body  its  graceftil 
curves  and  beautiful  outline. 

Very  few  boys  and  girls  have  ever  seen  a  whole 
muscle,  but  every  one  has  seen  a  beefsteak,  and  that  is 
a  slice  of  nuiscle.  We  are  eating  muscle  whenever  we 
eat  the  lean  flesh  of  a  chicken,  lamb,  or  other  animal. 

How  muscles  act. — On  the  left  we  have  a  picture 
of  a  muscle  taken  from  the  leg  of  a  frog.  If  this 
were  a  real  muscle  instead  of  a  i)icture, 
and  we  were  to  prick  it  with  a  pin,  it 
would  at  once  become  shorter ;  that  is, 
it  would  contract.  It  would  then  look 
like  the  picture  on  the  right.  After  con- 
tracting, a  muscle  will  return  to  the 
shape  that  it  had  before  ;  that  is,  it  will 
relax.  It  is  by  means  of  their  ])ower 
to  contract  and  relax  that  the  nuiscles 
are  able  to  move  the  body. 


LKO    MfsCI.K    OF 
A    FROG. 


m 


lii 


m 


PIIYSIOLOOY    FOR   CIIILDKEX 


Hai-e  your  right  arm,  and  liold  it  up 
before  yoii,  with  the  palm  of  tlie  haml 
towanl  yon.  Close  your  liaiid  and  then 
<'l»en  it    again.     AVatcli  the  arm  while 
yon  do  this,  and  you  will  see  muscles 
lying  along  the  front  of  it  contract  anv. 
pull  your  fingers  down.     Then  muscles 
lying  along  the  back  of  it  contract  and 
pull  the  fingers  up  again. 

Here  are  i)ictures  of  the  Ixmes  of  the 
arm,  witli  one  muscle  in  its  natural  posi- 
tion.  The  other  muscles  of  the  arm  are 
not  shown. 
The    upper 
end  of  this 
muscle      is 
fastened  to 
a    bone    at 
the     shoul- 
der, and  ti.e 
lower  end  is   fastened  to 
another  bone  below  the  el- 
bow.      When  this  muscle 

contracts,  it  pulls  on  the  bone  to  which  its  lower  end  is 
fastened,  and  the  forearm  and  hand  are  moved  upward. 


UNCOXTHACTED 
JtUSCLE  OF 
UPPEH   ARM. 


CONTRACTED   MUSCLE  OF   UPPER 
ARM. 


MUSCLE8 


37 


Why  muscles  contract.— Iii  our  bodies  there  are 
many  silvery  threads,  eaUed  nerves,  which,  like  tele- 
graph wires,  carry  messages.  Whenever  you  decide 
to  move  your  arm,  your  hand,  or  any  part  of  your 
body,  a  message  is  sent  out  by  your  brain.  This  mes- 
sage travels  (piickly  along  a  nerve  to  the  proper  nuis- 
cles,  and  on  its  arrival  a  contraction  of  those  muscles 
takes  place.  like  faithful  servants  they  obey  your 
slightest  command. 

Kinds  of  muscles.— Some  muscles,  such  as  those  of 
the  arms  and  legs,  contract  only  when  we  order  them 
to  do  so.  They  are  under  the  control  of  our  will  and 
for  this  reason  they  are  called  voluntary  nuiscles. 

There  are  many  other  muscles  which  are  not  under 
the  conti'ol  of  the  will.  We  can  neither  make  them 
contract  nor  prevent  them  from  contracting,  so  they 
are  called  involuntary  muscles.  Your  heart  is  made 
up  of  involuntary  muscles.  You  have  no  control 
over  its  action ;  it  keeps  on  beating  whether  you  are 

awake  or  asleep. 

Shapes  of  muscles.— Muscles  are  of  many  differ- 
ent shapes  and  sizes.  Some  are  thin,  round  and  long; 
some  are  short  and  broad  ;  while  others  are  spread  out 
like  a  lan.  The  shape  and  size  of  each  are  suited  to 
the  work  it  has  to  do. 


-t    '- 


<  i 


38 


FJIYSlouxjY    FOK   ("HILDKKX 


THREK   FIHRES   OF  VOLUVTARY 
MUSCLE.     (Mairnitl.'il.) 


What  iiHiHiloM  are  made  of.-Muscles  are   made 
ot  very  line  tli.vad.s,  o,-  tWnvs.     Jlere  in  a  picture  of 
tLree  hUvs  of  voluntary  ,uu«cJe,  very  nuid.  .nacr„ifie<l 
aud  also  a  picture  of  a  bundle  of  ninths.     Eacirvolun- 
tary  muscle  consists  of  bundles  of  these  fibres.     Tlie 

bundles    and    fibres   are 
held     togethei-    by   con- 
nective    tissue.      AMien 
lean  meat  is  boiled  the 
c-onneetive  tissue  is  soft- 
^Mied    and     the     nmscle 
.         ^         ,        ,  ^''i"  J>^  easily  separated 

into   hue  threads,  and   yet    the  snmllest  thread  con- 
•^ists  of  many  fibres. 

ThetendoiiM — Some 
muscles  are  attached  at 
l^oth    ends    directly  to 
bone.      Other    muscles 
t'lid  in  white  glistening 
conls   wiiich    are    fast- 
ened   to   bone.       These 

cords  are  called  tendons.  The  ten<h.n8  are  composed 
of  hard  connective  tissue,  which  is  tough  and  strong 
and  will  not  stretcli.  ^ 

If  you  look  at  the  back  of  your  hand  while  your 


A    HtTXDr.E    OF    MirsrLE    FIIIRE.S. 

<MuKiii(li.(|.) 


MUSCLKtS 


39 


fingers  are  workin<^  rapully,  you  will  see,  moviiifi^  under 
the  skin,  the  tendons  which  belong  to  the  nniscles  on 
the  back  of  the  arm. 

Exercise. — Our  muscles  re(iuii'e  food.  They  get 
it  from  the  blood,  through  little  tulx-s.  Kach  time  a 
muscle  contracts  these  little  tuljes  become  larger,  and 
the  nuiscle  receives  an  increased  amount  of  food. 

Exercise  causes  the  nuiscles  to  contract  again  and 
a<min.  While  they  are  contracting  they  get  more  food 
from  the  blood,  and  therefore  increase  in  size  and 
strencrth.  It  is  because  of  uiore  exercise  that  the 
farmer's  boy  who  works  in  the  fiehis  is  generally 
stronger  than  tlje  boy  who  lives  in  tlie  city.  The 
blacksmith  can  pound  the  red  hot  i.on  with  great 
force  because  liis  nuiscles  are  lai-ge  and  strong,  ))ut 
his  muscles  have  become  large  and  strong  because  for 
years  he  lias  been  pounding  the  iron. 

Muscles  that  are  not  used  soon  become  small  and 
weak,  for  they  do  not  i-eceive  ]>roper  i  ^)lies  of  blood, 
and  so  are  not  well  fed.  This  is  shown  in  the  case 
of  a  broken  arm.  After  an  arm  has  ])een  iii  a  sling 
for  a  few  weeks  vts  nuiscles  become  so  weak,  from  lack 
of  exercise,  that  it  is  hard  for  them  to  \ake  even  ordi- 
n.ary  movements. 

All  parts  of  the  body  sh'  uld  be  exercised,  so  that 


4    H 


■s 


40 


I! 


PiIYSlOL()(JV   FOU  CIIILDUEX 


one  part  mny  not  i-enuiin  ^veak  wl.iJe  <,ther  parts  be 
-ne  strong.     Not  all  people  are  benefited  l>v  the  san.e 
Ivnu  of  exerce     8on.e  tire  sooner  than  otheVs.     Son  e 
r.eed  Jni.der  ^vo,.k  than  others.     Therefo-^  i^  U  f         , 
to  in«i'«f    -  ,.     +  1  •  -I'ltieio.^  1,  IS  foolish 

to  lns,st    „„    taking  „„j.  ,,„,|i™l,,r  e.verci.se    ,„erelv 

as  tlK.e  „.,el,  ,i.,,t  .eights,  „•„„,,  „.„  ,«  ,„„;3; 


EX™,„M,.VT  TO  >„„»•  Er,ECT  OP  AU^OHOL 
ON    THE    MUSCLES. 

Effect    of    alrolini   »»     *i 

»e.e  .cent  y  „ta,.e  b.,tl,  i„  SwitJ-lan,,  „„,,  Bel^ 
-le.    The  a™  wa.  fi,ed  „„  »  boanl  by  meana  o 


<-4 


MUSCLES 


41 


two  clamps,  so  as  to  keep  it  still.  The  first  and  third 
fiugei's  were  placed  in  tubes,  which  kept  them  from 
interfering  with  the  second  finger.  A  string,  fastened 
to  the  second  fingei-,  Avas  passed  over  a  i)ulley  and 
attached  to  a  weight. 

Every  time  the  second  finger  was  bent  upwards  the 
weight  was  lifted.  The  experiments  consisted  in  bend- 
ing and  straightening  out  tlie  finger  until  its  nuiscles 
became  so  tired  that  they  could  not  lift  the  weight 


again. 


It  was  found  that  the  nuiscles  of  the  finjrer  could  do 
more  work  when  no  alcohol  was  taken  than  they  could 
when  even  a  small  amount  was  taken. 

A  man  who  develops  his  muscles  by  exercise  until 
they  become  large  and  strong  is  called  an  athlete. 
The  following  lettei-s  show  that  when  athletes  are  try- 
ing to  become  as  strong  as  possible  it  is  usual  for  them 
to  do  without  alcohol  and  tobacco.  This  proves  that 
the  use  of  either  alcohol  or  tobacco  is  considered 
injurious  to  the  muscles. 

The  Cornell  Xavy. 
Ithaca,  X.  Y.,  November  7,  1899. 

Gentlemen: — Answering  your  favor  asking  my  opinion  as  to 
the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  and  tobacco  by  men  who  are  train- 
ing for  rowing  contests,  I  would  say  : 


42 


I'lrvsioumv  foi;  <iiimu:k\ 


A    ( KKW     OV   A nil.KTKs. 


^n^st  :  As  to  alvolwUr  li(,uors,  I  do  not  believe  in  the  use  of 
iiuy  for...  of  al.M.l.oli.-  liquor  for  n.en  in  t  -uining.    J  know  that 
in  hnghmd,  u„(l  sometimes  in  this  countrv.  it  is  used  by  other 
fu.ners   but  I  have  foun.l,  in  my  experience,  that  young  men 
''>-^'  "HH-h  better  olF,  un.l  do  better  uork  without  alcoholic  stim- 
"iHuts   than    with    then.,  and    they  ure.   therefore,    absolutelv 
l>.-oh.bne,l  m  our  training.     The  use  of  ul.-ohol  in  any  shape  i 
"M     win    y  unnecessary  for  any  young  man  who  has'sumient 
••><Hv     -1th  to  be  athletic,  and  in  many  cases,  as  i  know,  it  is 
positively  injurious  if  used. 

S^'ond:  As  to  tobacco,  I  believe  young  men  ' 
when  not  using  tobacco  than  when  using  it.  an.l  u 
in  our  training  here  at  Cornell  rniversity. 

Respectfully  yours, 

ClIAS.    F     ('(XKTXKY. 


better  work 
jirohibited 


Mis<  F.i; 


4:} 


\k\v  Vokk,  March.  \l.  llioii. 

/fear  Sir: — Iit'|ilyin<j  to  your  favor  of  the   loili    iiist..  I  w.'! 

SUV   that    I   do   iKil   use  al<-i)li<i|ic   liijiiors   in   any  fi)rin.  iicitlicr 

(U)  I  ii.s(^  toliacro.      I  liavc  lu'VtT   used    tliciii.      I  do  iiot  lu'licve 

aiiv  athlete  can   meet  with  siicces-;  who  (hies  use  eitlier  ah'ohol 


or 


tol 


)aetd. 


I»esi)e( 


tfuU 


V  Vf)iir.- 


KiiANK  Tj.  Kuami:i; 


{National  amateur  fi/tliu'/  r/iatiipioa  of  Amrrira.  ISUS,  ISIH).) 

Ni:\v  ll.WKX.  Conn..  Jan.  Jl,  1!»(K). 
Dear  Sir: — Yours  of  ilie  Idlh  Inst,  at  hand.  It  is  ahso- 
lutely  necessary  for  a  (roUej^**  or  scliool  athh'te  wlio  is  strivinj,' 
to  win  a  phice  on  any  team  to  have  endurance;  espechilly  is  this 
true  in  rowJTig  and  foothall.  Tliis  can  he  accomplished  to  the 
•greatest  decree  only  hy  ahstaininj;  from  tlie  use  of  tohacco  and 
alcoholic  drinks  while  in  traininj?  for  said  team. 

Very  truly  yours, 

M.  V.  McI'.itiDK. 
('apt.    Yale  Fnolhall  '/Vain  ufUU. 

17:5  Ukoadwav,  Nkw  V()I!K.  April  \.  I'.iol. 

Dear  Sir : — There  is  nothintr  which  jroes  to  make  a  hetter 
athlete,  uothinj;  which  give^  a  man  greater  power  of  endurance 
than  total  ahstineiu-e  from  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  and 
tobacco. 

At  the  opening  of  college,  all  the  candidates  for  the  foothall 
team  are  called  together  and  informecl  of  the  ])lans  for  the 
year.  They  are  also  told  at  what  date  rigid  training  will  hegin. 
Those  men  who  are  using  liquor  and  tohacico  havi'  now  a  chance 


44 


PIIYSIOLJKjy  FOR  nilLDREN 


I    f 


gnulually  to  leave  tl.orn  off  alto^^ether,  so  that  at  tl.e  set  date 
every  one  starts  i,.  on  good,  l.anl.  conscienhons  work 

At  I  nnceton,  there  J.ave  been  several  opinions  given  in  re 
fc'urd  to  the  nse  of  ale  at  the  training  table.  In  sonl  yea  the 
n^enwbo       Hed  to  has     -.  have  been  given  one  gird 

alcohol  c  I.quors  are  never  used.     I  think  a  team  is  better  off 
without  any  of  them. 

Xo   one  is  expec.ted  to  use  tobacco.      A  man  who  is  usin. 
tol„."eo  and   alcohol  contrary  to  orders  during  the  season "s 
easily  detected,  and  is  dropped  from  the  squad. 
Yours  truly, 

AVjlliam  ir.  Edwards, 

Cajjt.  -09  Foof/u(U  Team, 

Pkincetox  University. 
We  have  learned  that : 

1.  Muscles  enable  us  to  move. 

2.  Muscles  give  ft  i)leusi„g  shape  to  the  body. 

3.  Muscles  cjin  contract  and  relax 

and  ,r;::,.:::;.:L;r"'^'^ '- '-  -"  -  ^^-^  -  — ^„, 

^  J.  Muscles  contract  because  n.essages  f™„.  the  brain  con.e  to  then,  along 

6.  Son.e  n,us,.les  are  voluntary,  others  are  involuntary. 
<.  Muscles  are  made  uj)  of  fibres. 

8.  Son.c  n.uscles  end  in  tendons,  which  are  fastened  to  bones 
y.   hxercise  makes  muscles  stron-'ci- 
^la ^Muscles  can  do  better  work  ;ithout  alcohol  and  tobacco  than  with 


I    t. 


CIIAPTKll  IV 


THE    FOLIJ    KINDS    OF    FOOD 

Food  buildH  up  the  body. — Everytliing  wcurs 
away  as  time  pusses.  Your  shoes  w  ear  out  and  have 
to  be  repaired  witli  leatlier.  Your  warm  winter  stock- 
ings wear  out  and  liave  to  be  darned  with  yarn. 
Boys'  shirts  and  girls'  di-esses  wear  out  and  have  to  be 
mended  with  cloth. 

Our  bodies,  too,  are  wearing  out  from  day  to  day 
and  have  to  be  repaired, — not  with  leather,  .)r  yarn, 
or  cloth,  but  with  bread  and  milk,  meat  an«l  vegeta- 
bles, and  other  things  that  we  eat  and  di-ink.  Some 
of  your  skin  wears  out  every  day.  If  y<m  sciape  the 
skin  of  your  arm  gently  with  a  knife,  you  will  collect 
on  it  a  great  many  particles  that  are  just  ready  to  fall 
away.  Even  your  muscles  and  youi-  brain  wear  out, 
although  you  cannot  see  the  worn-out  i)articles.  But 
as  each  particle  wears  out  it  is  washed  away  and  a 
new  one  is  made  in  its  place.  The  material  out  of 
which  these  new  particles  are  made  is  obtained  from 
food. 

Besides  being  used  for  repair,  food  produces  the  heat 
of  the   body,  and  gives  us  the  power  to  work.     In 


40 


IMIVSIOLOOV    FOU  CllILDHKN 


the    cu.se    of   cliiMreii    s(»m«'   food    is  used   up  jilso  in 
gioutli. 

KiiidH   of  food. — We  must  eat  different  kinds  of 

food  if  we  wish  to  lie  strong  and  healthy,  because  no 

one  kind   ean  supply  ail  the  different  nniterials  that 

are  needed  to  huild  up  every  part  of  the  Ixtdy  and  to 

furnish  it  with  heat  and  power  to  work.      This  is  tiie 

reason  why   we   have  several   kinds   of    food  on    our 

fihles  for  each    meal.       Sugar  \h  a  useful  food,  hut 

it    you    ate  sugar  for  breakfast,  dinner,  and  supper, 

day  after  day,  and  ate  nothing  else,  you  W(.uld  become 

very  thin  and   weak,  and,  in  the  end,  would  starve  to 

death. 

It  is  easy  to  make  a  long  list  of  different  articles  of 
food  that  are  commonly  used.  Some  of  these  are  beef 
and  mutton,  turkey  and  chicken;  fish  and  oysters, 
potatoes  and  cabbage;  bread,  butter, and  eggs;  pie  and 
cake;  fruits;  water,  milk,  tea,  coffee,  coc( .a,  and  choco- 
late. This  by  no  means  ends  the  list,  yet  in  spite  of 
the  many  different  articles  that  might  be  named,  there 
are  only  four  different  kinds  of  food,  and  everything 
that  you  eat  belongs  to  one  or  more  of  these  four 
kinds. 

Proteid.     One  of  the  four  kinds  of  food  is  called 
proteid.     This  is  a  strange  name,  yer  you  have  seen 


TlIK    FOI  It    KIMIS   (>K    Hunt 


47 


proteid  many  tiiiu's.  The  white  of  an  e^'i;  is  oin'  kind 
of  proteid,  ami  is  called  albiiiiieii.  Hef  >.  '♦  is  touked 
it  lias  a  clear,  glassy  appeaiaiiee,  and  is  «jn.,  •  soft,  like 
thin  jelly.  Vou  can  se*-  through  it  very  much  as  you 
enn  see  thi'ou«;h  i;lass. 

Muscle — that  is,  lean  meat  of  all  kinds  h  nuide  up 
largely  «»f  proteids.  If  you  shouhl  look  at  a  thin  strip 
of  muscle  through  a  microscope,  yoi:  would  see  tlie 
clear,  glassy-looking  protei<l,  somewhat  like  the  white 
of  an  e^^ir  in  appearance.  Milk  and  cheese  have  tnuch 
|)rotei(l  in  them.  Many  vegetables  and  grains  als«t 
contain  it. 

The  chief  use  of  proteids  is  to  build  up  and  repair 
the  tissues  of  the  ImmIv,  but  they  can  also  be  used  to 
produce  heat  and  [K)wer  to  work. 

Starch  and  «ugar.— Staich  an<l  sugar  are  another 
of  the  four  kinds  of  foo(l. 

We  may  not  think  that  we  are  eating  starch  when 
we  eat  bread,  cake,  rice,  or  potatoes;  yet  all  of  them 
contain  much  starch.  It  forms  a  large  part  of  all  grains, 
such  as  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  rice.  Fo<»<l  containing 
starch  is  sometimes  called  starchy  food.  St.irch  and 
sugar  are  considered  the  same  kind  of  foo<l  l)ecause 
after  starch  has  been  eaten  it  changes  into  a  form  of 
sugar. 


=  I    i 


48 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CIIILDREX 


I  M 


Here  is  a  picture  sliowing  how  the  starch  in  wheat 
looks  througli  a  microscope.  Each  of  the  little  starch 
grains  is  enclosc<l  in  a  thin  ])ut  very  tough  envelope. 


STARCH    GRAINS    IN   WHEAT.      (Magnified.) 

When  starcli  is  cooked,  its  grains  swell  up  and  burst 
their  envelopes. 

Below  is  a  picture  of  the  starch  grains  of  a  potato  as 
they  appear  when  seen  througli  a  microscope. 

Starcliy  food  is  needed  to  produce  heat  and  power  to 
work. 


i  I 


STARCH    GRAIN'S    IN    POTATO.      (Magnified.) 


THK   ForU   KINDS   <>K    F(M>I) 


49 


nOTXD   PAHTtrLES   OF   FAT   IN    A    DROP 
OF    MII.K   SKKN    fXDKIl   A  MICUOSf'OPK. 


Fat. — Fat  Is  the  third 
kiiul  of  food.  As  a 
nile,  chihlren  do  not  like 
fat  meat,  but  they  like 
butter,  and  yet  butter 
is  only  fat  obtained 
from  milk.  Here  m  a 
picture  <»f  a  drop  of 
milk  as  it  looks  through 
a  microscope.  Itsliows 
the  fat,  or  butter,  in 
little  round  particles. 

Fat  also  produces  heat  and  power  to  work. 

Mineral  food. — The  fourth  kind  of  food  is  mineral 
food,  and  consists  of  water  and  salt.  C'onnnon  table 
salt  is  a  very  important  food.  You  eat  even  more  of 
tliis  salt  than  you  think,  for  nearly  every  article  of 
food  contains  it.  It  is  found  in  all  the  fluids  and  tis- 
sues of  the  body.  You  could  not  live  without  it.  In 
his  book,  "  In  Darkest  Africa,"  Stanley  tells  of  regions 
where  savages  are  accustomed  to  travel  many  hun- 
dreds of  miles  imder  great  difficulties  to  obtain  a  sup- 
ply of  salt.  Many  of  the  lower  animals  also  have  a 
natui'al  cra\in2:  for  it. 

Besides  the  common  salt  that  we  have  on  our  tables 


TjO 


IMIYSIOLiKJY    FOR    rlllLDKKN 


H   ~  ■ 


there  are  many  other  kiiuls, — salts  of  lime,  salts  of 
potash, salts  <»f  sodium,  salts  of  phosphonis,  salts  of  iron, 
as  well  as  others.  Smail  j)ortions  of  some  of  these  salts 
are  containe<l  in  almost  every  article  of  food  that  we 
eat  or  drink. 

One  use  of  salts  is  to  help  in  makinj?  l)one.  The 
hardness  of  hone  is  due  to  the  lime  salts  it  contains. 

Water,  our  natural  drink,  is  also  a  mineral,  and  one 
that  we  cannot  live  without.  We  need  it  to  dissolve 
our  food,  and  also  to  diss(dve  and  wash  away  the 
waste  matter.  Mo/e  than  half  of  our  body  consists  of 
water.  In  addition  to  that  whicli  we  drink,  we  get  a 
p'vat  deal  of  water  in  beef,  bread,  potatoes,  and  other 
things  we  eat. 

It  is  a  very  important  matter  to  get  pure  drinkino- 
water.  If  we  get  it  from  a  well,  the  well  sliould  be 
ke[)t  thoroughly  clean.  The  ground  around  the  well 
should,  if  necessary,  be  raise<l  so  as  to  be  higher  than 
the  ground  farther  away.  The  sui-face  water  will  then 
run  away  from  the  well  instead  of  draining  irto  it. 
J>'ery  care  should  be  taken  to  allow  nothing  near  the 
well  which  can  in  any  way  make  the  water  impuie. 
Impure  water  may  ])e  very  injurious,  for  it  may  cany 
germs  of  disease.  Even  water  that  is  clear  and  spark- 
ling may  In-  harmful. 


THE   ForiJ   KINDS   OF    FOOD 


51 


THE  QRODND    AROUND   THE    WELL  SHOULD    UE    HlCiHEK. 

M  ;ry  towns  and  cities  take  their  driiikiiiy^  water 
f  •  a  eanis  or  lakes  by  means  of  uiidergrouml  pipes. 
i  .  one  wiio  lives  on  the  banks  of  such  streams 
shv.iiid  be  careful  not  to  allow  filth  oi  any  kind  to  get 
into  the  water  that  others  are  going  to  diink. 


We  have  learned  that : 

1.  Food  builds  up  thu  liody  and  repairs  it  as  it  wears  out. 

2.  Food  is  the  fuel  of  the  body  und  keeps  it  warm. 

3.  Food  gives  us  power  to  work. 

4.  We  must  eat  dilTereiit  kinds  of  food. 

5.  There  are  (udy  four  kiiuls  of  food. 

0.  Proteiils  build  up  and  repair  the  tissues  of  the  body. 

7.  Starch,  suj^ar.  and  fat  produce  heal  .iiul  power  to  work 

8.  .Mineral  food  is  needed  to  make  bone 

9.  The  body  needs  water. 

10.  Water  often  contains  germs  of  disea.se. 


CHAPTER  V 


dikfp:hext  article-s  of  food 

The  ijorfect  food.— Milk  is  a  perfect  food  for  young 
children.  It  is  both  food  and  drink  for  them.  Milk 
consists  of  water,  proteid,  fat,  sugar,  and  salts.  The  fat, 
when  separated  by  churning,  is  called  butter.  What  is 
left  of  the  milk  is  called  buttermilk.  It  contains  all 
of  the  milk  except  the  fat,  and  is  a  useful  food.  The 
fat  and  the  proteid  together  can  be  separated  from 
the  rest  and  made  into  cheese ;  the  water,  sugar,  and 
salts  that  are  left  behind  arc  called     hey. 

Milk  must  be  pure  to  be  healthful.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  it  clean.  The  stables,  cows, 
and  those  who  do  the  milking  sliouhl  be  strictly  clean; 
and  all  vessels  in  which  milk  is  put  should  fii-st  be 
thoroughly  washed  with  boiling  water.  Milk  should 
not  be  kept  in  a  damp,  mouhly  cellar,  but  in  a  clean, 
dry,  \\-ell-aired  place. 

Aiiiiiinl  food.— Almost  all  animal  food  is  more 
readily  digested  than  vegetable  food.  Milk,  "  the  per- 
fect food,"  is  an  animal  food.  Eggs,  though  hardly  a 
perfect  food— having  too  little  sugar— are  valuable 
articles  of  diet,  for  they  consist   of  proteid,  fat,  and 


DIFFERENT  ARTICLES   OF   FOOD 


53 


some  mineral  matter.  Usually  they  are  easily  digested 
if  they  are  soft-boiled,  poached,  or  made  into  cus- 
tards. 

Meat  consists  of  water,  proteid,  fat,  and  some  salts. 
Beef,  lamb,  chicken  and  turkey  ai-e  the  most  digestible 
forms  of  meat.  Fresh  fish  also  is  easily  digested,  and 
foims  another  valuable  article  of  diet. 

Vegetable  food.— Such  cereals  as  wheat,  rice,  bar- 
ley, oats  and  rye  consist  of  starch,  proteids,  water, 
salts,  and  fat.  The  most  important  article  of  food 
made  from  cereals  is  bread.  In  this  country  biead  is 
usually  made  from  wheat.  If  the  proteid  part  of  the 
wheat  is  left  in  the  flour  it  will  have  a  brown  cohm 
Bread  made  from  this  flour  is  more  nutritious  but  less 
easily  digested  than  bread  made  from  white  flour. 

Potatoes  consist  largely  of  water  and  starch.  They 
are  usually  eaten  with  cream,  butter,  or  gravy  and 
meat,  and  in  this  way  a  su[)i  W  of  starch,  fat,  and  pro- 
teid is  obtained.  Green  peas,  string  beans,  si»inach, 
and  asparagus  are  examples  of  other  vegetables  that 
are  easily  digested.  Such  vegetables  are  useful  chiefly 
for  the  salts  they  contain. 

Ripe,  sound,  fresh  fruits  are  of  some  value  as  food, 
because  of  the  sugar  and  salts  in  them.  Fruit  salts 
are  especially  good  for  growing  children. 


54 


l'HYSIoi,<HiY    tun   CHILnKKN 


i  1 


Food  not  oasily  di|j;(>Ht<Ml. — Some  articles  of  food 
are  more  easily  digested  and  more  nutritious  than 
others.  People  have  to  learn  hy  ex[)erience  what 
agrees  with  them,  and,  if  they  are  wise,  they  will  not 
eat  food  that  <lisagrees  with  them. 

Pork  of  any  kind,  salt  meats,  salt  Hsh,  veal,  liver, 
kidney,  goose,  and  duek  aro  hard  to  digest. 

(freen  coin,  radishes,  law  celery,  onions,  tomatoes, 
carrots,  and  ('Ucund)ers  are  not  easily  digested,  and 
contain  oidy  a  small  amount  of  nourishment. 

Hot  bread,  buns,  rolls,  and  cake  are  hard  to  digest. 
Pies,  tarts,  [)astry,  nuts, and  salads  are  not  easily  digested. 

Unripe  <»r  partially  decayed  fruits  shouhl  never  be 
eaten.  Dried,  canned,  and  preserved  fruits,  and  jellies 
are  not  so  desirable  as  fresh  ii]»e  fruit. 

Tlio  oookiii}>:  of  food. — Most  of  our  food  is  cooked 
in  some  way,  in  order  to  make  it  pleasanter  to  the 
taste,  or  easier  to  digest.  After  having  been  cooked, 
meat  is  more  tender,  and  more  digestible.  Onlv  a 
small  amount  of  unc(>oked  starch  can  be  di<rested, 
but  after  starchy  food  has  been  well  cooked  the 
starch  grains  swell  and  burst  their  envelo[)es,  and  can 
then  be  easily  digested. 

Care  is  needed  in  the  cooking  and  serving  of 
food.     E\  eiy  dish  or   utensil   in  which   it  is    cooked, 


1)1 


KFKKKNT    AUTK'LKS   oK    KOOH 


AS 


TllK    COCJKINti    <>t"    FOOD. 

ai.a  every  <H^1»  i"  ^vl'i^•l>  ^^  i'*  '^^''^■*'''  '*''  1'"^  '*''''>' 
«h<>ul.l  be  thoroui^lily  clean.  Foo.l  slioiiM  I.e  kept 
covered  as  niiieli  a^^  possil.le,  t.»  protect  it  from  insects. 

Every  one  sliould  learn  to  cook.  Snch  knowledge 
is  alwavs  useful,  and  often  necessary. 

Artiflfial  drinks.  -Water  is  <.ften  flavored  in 
different  wavs  to  make  artiiicial  drinks.  All  artiHcial 
drinks  maybe  «livided  into  two  classes,  those  which 
contain  alcohol,  and  those  which  do  not. 

Amono-  those  which  do  not  contain  alcohol  are 
tea    coffee,  cocoa,  and    chocolate.     These    drinks    are 


fiG 


IMIYSIOLCMJY    Foli  CllILi>KKN 


if 
If 


taken  mainly  because  of  t}ieir  pleasant  taste  and  the 
agreeable  effects  they  produce.  Cocoa  and  choco- 
late are  more  nourishing  than  either  tea  or  coffee. 
When  any  of  these  drinks  are  prepared  for  children, 
more  milk  should  be  added  than  when  they  are 
l)rei>ared  for  grown  peo[)le. 

If  tea  and  coffee  are  made  very  strong,  or  if  we 
drink  much  of  them,  they  are  likely  to  do  us  harm. 

Kiilcs. — A  few  simple  rules  in  regard  to  eating 
shouhl  always  be  observed. 

1.  AVe  should  eat  slowly  and  chew  our  food  well. 

2.  Food  should  not  be  eaten  after  the  feelimr  of 
hunger  is  satisfie<l. 

3.  Meals  should  be  taken  at  regular  hours. 

4.  Nothing  should  be  eaten  between  meals. 

5.  The  evening  meal  should  be  the  simplest  and 
plainest  meal  of  the  day. 

6.  No  drink  should  be  taken  while  there  is  food 
in  the  mouth. 

7.  Ice  water  should  not  be  taken  freely  at  meal 
time. 

Alcohol. — In  our  choice  of  what  we  eat  and  drink 
vre  should  select  what  will  keep  the  body  in  as  nearly 
perfect  condition  as  possible,  and  avoid  what  will 
prevent  us  from  doing  our  best  work.     The  use  of 


i 


DIFFEKKNT  AUTULKS  OF   Fool)  Ot 

alcoholic  liiiuor  uuiits  a  man  for  tareful  au.l  exact 
work,  and  for  holding  positions  in  which  he  has  charge 
of  the  life  and  property  oi  others.  Many  c«)nipanies 
and  business  linns  will  not  enii)loy  a  man  who  is 
known  to  drink,  because  they  are  afrai«l  to  trust  their 
business  to  him.  The  folio  ving  letter  and  rules  show 
that  this  statement  is  true : 

WESTINGIIOrSE    KlECTUIC    &    MANrKACTlUIXO    COMI'AXY, 

PlTTSIILIU;,  I'A. 

Jaiiunrif  15,  1900. 
Gentlemen:— Moi^ymg  to  youvs  of  tho  i:Jth  instant,  wo  do 
not  post  or  publish  uny  rules  concerning  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  by  our  employees,  nor  do  we  consider  such  rules  at  all 
necessary.  We  do  not  knowingly  employ  for  any  important 
position  any  person  known  to  be  a  habitual  user  of  alcoholic 
liquors.  If  we,  unfortunately,  lind  such  a  person  in  our 
employ,  we  dismiss  him. 

Yours  truly, 

U.  11.  Wakkex, 

Second  Vice-President. 

Xew  York  Central  &  TIidson  River  R.  K.  Co. 
"The  use  of  intoxicating  drink  on  the   road  or  about  the 
premises  of  the  corporation  is  strictly  forbidden.     No  one  will 
be  employed,  or  continued  in  employment,  who  is  known  to  be 
in  the  habit  of  drinking  intoxicating  liquor." 

E.  Van  Etten, 

General  Superintendent, 


5H 


IMIYSlOLOtiY    FOK   (  IliLOHKN 


Illinois  Ckxtkal  I{Aii.ifo.\i»  (  umpany. 
**Tlio  CniniKiiiy  licri'lty  imnoiiuccs  that  in  onipIoviiuMit  hihI 
promoticdis  in  its  service  u  jtrcfcrciict'  will  Ix'  ;.'iv('ii  to  persons 
wlio  an;  known  to  l)c  total  iihstiiiners  ;  and  nmler  no  eireuni- 
stiuiees  will  it  tolerate  acts  of  drinkini.''  Ity  men  on  «lnty,  or 
wearing  any  i)art  of  the  Conipuny's  uniform.'" 

A.    W.  St  l.i.iv.vx. 

deneral  Stijtt'ritili'iiili  nl, 

MKTUOrOLITAN    StkkKT    liAILWAV    CoMI'AVY.    N  i;\V    ^'oiiK. 

"  Drinkinjx  any  heer,  wine.  li(|,i(ir  or  intoxieatiiij,'  ilrink.  or 
ontorin;;  any  (Irinkinjj  jtlaee  diirinj;  the  hours  of  duty,  or  the 
earryinj;  of  any  iiitoxieatinij  drink  ahout  the  person.  ()r  the 
hringinjj  of  same  on  the  premises  of  the  Company  will  he  cause 
for  dischar<rc. 

The  fre(|uenting  of  drinking  places,  or  tlie  indulgence  to 
excess  in  intoxicating  licjuore  when  olT  duty,  will  he  cause  for 
iliscluirge." 

f>l{KV    IJooT,  J  If.. 

Assixfanf  to  Iho  J'resulpiit. 

Can-apiav  Pacific  IJailway  (.'ompanv. 
'•  In  the  interests  of  safety  and  etticiency,  the  use  of  intox- 
icants while  on  duty  is  absolutely  prohibited.  No  instance  of 
intoxication  on  duty  will  ever  be  overlooked,  but  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  immediate  dismissal.  The  habitual  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors  will  be  considered  sufficient  cause  for  dismissal,  and 
preference  will  in  every  case  be  given  to  those  who  abstain 
from  their  use." 

J.   W.  Leoxari). 

Geiieral  IStiperintendent. 


DIKKKKKNT    AUTK  LKS   OF    KO(»|) 


.Mi;.\  WHO  H.vvK  rn.vuoK  OK  mt:  lives  dk  (ithers. 


AMKKICAN    K^l'KKSS    COMI'ASY. 

'•Any  cniplovoe  <lrinkiug  liquor  while  on  (hity.  or  during 
business  hours,  will  be  cautioned  once,  and  if  be  repeats  the 
offence,  be  discharged  immediately.  Any  emi'loycc  wbo  is 
known  to  drink  to  <  xcess,  while  oif  duty,  will  be  dismissed 
from  the  service." 

J  AS.    ('.    FAlUiO. 

J'residftif. 


We  have  learned  that : 

1.   Milk  is  a  |(crfett  I'mxl. 

'>.   Mfiii  cnntains  prolfi'U.  fat,  salts,  and  water. 

3.  ( "ereals  contain  water,  salts,  starch,  and  proteids. 

4.  Vej;('tia)ler,  are  useful  chiefly  for  the  salts  they  contain. 
rt.  Some  articles  of  food  are  not  easily  digenU-d. 


'^    If: 


CIIAPTKR   VI 

HOW    OUU    I'(KU>    IS    <IIA.N<}KI)    INTO    BMM)D 

Digestion. — Tlie  leatlwr  that  is  nst'd  to  make  \onr 
shoes  was  once  tlie  skin  <»f  an  ox  or  a  cilf ;  the  \  ;iiii 
of  which  your  winter  stockiiius  are  iua<l«'  was  once 
f^rowing  as  wool  on  the  l)ack  of  a  sheep;  tlie  cotton 
that  is  used  to  make  tliread  and  ch>tii  was  once  jjrow- 
ing  in  the  fiehls  of  the  sunny  Soutli.  Before  skin, 
wool,  and  cott  /ii  can  be  used  to  make  or  repair  our 
clothing  tliey  have  to  he  changed,  and  this  changing 
is  done  in  buildings  which  we  call  factories. 

The  soft,  fluffy  cotton  <  arried  into  a  factory  is 
changed  to  a  piece  of  cloth;  the  wool  is  changed  into 
yarn,  and  the  skin  of  the  ox  or  the  calf  is  .hanged 
into  leather. 

Just  so,  everything  yon  eat  must  be  changr  before 
it  can  be  used  to  build  uj)  or  repair  the  bo<ly ;  A  must 
be  changed  into  blood  ;  and  inc  first  steps  of  'his  pro- 
cess of  chansjfing  are  calle<l  <liifestion. 

The  factory  in  which  dige-rion   is  canitMi  on  is    , 
loni;   tube    which    passes   tlirouijii    the   bod        Ii     it 
there    are    throe    main    \\(»i'kshops,    the    m;    th,   t< 
stomach,  and  the  intestines. 


m 


ll(t\v    u    R   F«M»i>   Is 


\'t. 


\T<>  nr.oon 


(•! 


our  (^    ii'n  fr«>''*    tvetl       it  <• 
i»wceH    of    ,  .<H  bi'iKHi 

bi,  k  teeth  ixriiio  t!-  i  'od  ii|»; 
ami  tin  t.>i!iriie  r<»lU  ^t  annmd 
s<)  that  i  nay  1'-  H  cliewe«l 
ail' I  T  lixeii  w    ''  :»• 

The  tt'fth  1  »e  t(  h  are 
ina<le  <"  materia^  wli  re- 
st-mbles  ^m\t.  Eiery  lootli 
hu       IT.   •  11,  wli  'li  w  the  part 

y.ii     in  M««  in  tit  •  nioutli,  and 

ji     x.t  or  )      iH  -•■■  liieh  fit  into 

JH.les    in    tl=^    JHAV.      If   you 

crack  a  toot     \\  itii  a  liaiiinu*r 

vou  will  find  in  the  centre  a 
ittle  li(»llow  for  small  nerves 

and  blood  tubes. 

The  cnnni  of  each  tooth  is 

covered  with  a  thin  layer  «.f 

enamel,  the   hardest  material 

in  the  body.     If  a  |.a,t  of  the  the  -J>- --J," 

enamel  is  broken  off,  the  tooth  r,  ti..  .-o 

will  decay  and  a  hole  will  be 


HICH    PASSES 
HODY. 


fi,  till'  !*niiill  iiitii'line. 
/(,  llu'l^.v-'o  liiUftiiif. 


m 


PFlYSIOLOiSY    Ft)H   ClIILDKEN 


formed.  Tliis  l)ecoiiies  larger  a\u\  larger  until  a  nerve 
is  reached,  and  then  the  tooth  may  ache. 

We  have  during  our  lifetime  two  sets  of  teeth, 
'I'he  first  teeth  begin  to  come  when  we  are 
ahout  seven  months  old.  They  are  (juite 
small,  and  are  sometimes  calle<l  milk-teeth. 
There  are  oidv  twentv  <f  them.  When  a 
chihl  is  about  six  years  old  the  roots  of  the 
oF^'^'T/xnH.  milk-teeth  waste  away,  and  new  teeth,  which 
F.N amV.Y;  have  been  formed  at  tiie  roots  of  the  old 
ItT^a  n'd  «>'»^''''  l'"^^i  through  the  gums  an«l  force  the 
ROOTS.         ^^j^}  ^^.^^jj  ^jjj^      These  second  teeth  are  larger 

than  the  milk-teeth.  There  are  thirty-two  of  them  in 
all,  but  four  of  them  do  not  appear  until  we  are  grown 
u]),  and  for  this  reason  they  are  called  wisdom-teeth. 

You  shouM  take  great  care  of  your  teeth  to  prevent 
them  from  decaying.  They  should  be  cleaned  with  a 
soft  brush,  warm  water,  and  a  little  tooth-soap,  or 
tooth-powder,  free  from  grit.  Particles  of  food  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  between  the  teeth,  but 
should  be  remove<l  after  leaving  the  table.  They 
should  not,  however,  be  removed  with  a  pin  or  any- 
thing hard,  but  with  a  bit  of  silk  or  a  piece  of  soft 
wood.  You  sliould  not  crack  nuts  witii  your  teeth, 
or  bite  anything  very  hard,  because,  in  that  way,  the 


now    (UK    FOOD    IS   CIIANCiKn    1M«»    BLOtU) 


c:i 


TIIK    SAt.IVAKV    (JLANDS,    a,    h,    ANO    C. 

enamel  may  be  injured  and  the  teeth  may  soon 
decay. 

The  MJilivsi. — W  you  P»t  a  pie(.*e  of  dry  bread  into 
your  mouth  and  chew  it,  the  bread  soon  becomes 
moist  and  easy  to  swaHow.  It  is  moistened  by  a 
watery  fluid,  called  saliva,  which  is  made  in  small 
organs,  called  salivary  ghuids. 

Glands  are  clustei-s  of  cells  which  are  held  together 
by  connective  tissue  and  are  surrounded  by  small 
blood  tubes.     These  cells  take  certain  materials  out 


64 


PlIYSIOL<KiY    FOR   ClIILUKEN 


,1 


of  the  blood  into  themselves  nnd  change  them  into 
new  fluids,  which  are  poured  out  as  they  are  needed. 
Thus,  in  the  salivaiy  glands,  saliva  is  made  from 
material  taken  from  the  bloo<l.  Besides  the  salivary 
glands,  there  are  other  glands  in  other  parts  of  the 

botly. 

From  the  salivary  glands  the  saliva  flows  into  the 
mouth  through  small  tubes.  AVhen  you  have  nothing 
in  your  mouth,  tlie  salivary  glands  work  slowly,  and 
oidy  enough  saliva  is  made  to  keep  the  mouth  moist 
But  the  moment  you  begin  to  eat,  or  chew  anyching, 
they  begin  to  work  faster  and  pour  saliva  into  the 
mouth  more  rapidly.  Even  the  sight  or  thought  of 
pleasant  food  will  often  increase  the  flow  of  saliva, 
and,  as  we  say,  "  make  the  mouth  water." 

Saliva  has  the  power  to  change  starch  into  a  kind 
of  sugar.  This  is  very  important,  because  sugar  will 
dissolve  in  water,  but  stai'ch  will  not.  If  you  put 
some  sugar  into  a  cup  of  water,  it  will  dissolve  (quickly. 
Stir  the  water  for  a  minute  or  two,  then  pour  it  off, 
and  you  will  find  no  sugar  left  in  the  cup.  If  you  now 
cnunble  a  small  piece  of  bread,  which  consists  largely 
of  stnrch,  and  put  the  crumbs  into  a  cup  of  water, 
they  will  not  dissolve.  When  you  pour  off  the  water 
the  bread  crumbs  will  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup. 


now   OUR   FOOD   18  CHANGED   INTO   BLOOD 


66 


The  starch  in  our  food  luust  be  clianged  to  sugar  so 
that  it  will  dissolve,  because  it  cannot  make  blood  until 
it  is  dissolved.  We  ought,  therefore,  to  eat  slowly  an«l 
chew  our  food  well,  so  that  the  starch  in  it  may  be 
well  mixed  with  the  saliva,  which  changes  it  to  sugar. 


THE    PA" 


H-    THK    MOtTTH    IV 
^;HING. 


n,  the  niifinl  i 


THE    SAME    PARTS    IN   8WAI/- 
LOWI.NO. 

,\  roof  of  the  mouth  ;  p.  tatt  palate  ;  /,  lid  overoiK'ninRinto  windpipe; 
!,  esopbagUB ;  t,  tongue ;  t\  tontli ;  /',  food  tliat  ie  being  swallowed. 

(IjindoiK  and  Stirling.) 

The  chewing  of  tobacco  not  oidy  wastes  saliva,  but 
is  an  unclean  habit.     Smoking,  too,  Avastes  saliva. 

Swallowing.— After  the  food  has  been  torn  to  pieces 
by  the  teeth  and  moistened  by  the  saliva,  the  soft,  wet 
mass  is  pushed  back  into  the  throat  by  the  tongue,  and 
then  passes  through  a  tube,  called  the  esoi)hagU8,  into 
the  stomach. 


m 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOi:   {'HILDKKN 


The  wall  of  the  esophagus  coutains  niusclea.    When 
food    iiasaos   into   this   tube    tioni   the   mouth    these 


STOMACH    I\    ITS    NATtTHAL    POSITION. 

(XiiTK  :   Sit  ApixMidix  for  Ki'V.) 


muscles  contract  and  force  the  food   along  until   it 
reaches  the  stomach. 


HOW  orii  Foon  IS  ciian'okd  into  kloou 


67 


Before  the  food  cuu  pass  (l«>\vu  tlu^  tsopha^us  it  has 
to  pass  over  the  opening  into  the  windpipe.  Some  of 
the  food  might  get  into  the  windpipe  if  it  were  nut  for 
u  lid  which  shuts  (h>wii  und  coveis  the  small  oi>enini< 
whenever  we  attempt  to  swallow.  Just  as  soon  as  the 
food  has  passed  the  opening,  the  lid  lifts  up  aiul  allows 
air  to  go  down  again  into  the  lungs. 

Sometimes  a  crumb,  or  a  drop  of  water,  goes  the 
wrong  way  and  slips  under  this  lid  into  the  windpipe. 
We  tiien  cough  violently  to  get  it  up.  If  a  large  ]'iece 
of  f(K»d  were  to  get  into  the  windpipe  we  should 
die  unless  it  were  quickly 
taken  out,  for  wt;  could  ii<  t 
breathe. 

Digestion  in  the  stoiii- 
aoli.  —  The  stomach  looks 
like  a  bag  or  pouch.  Its 
walls  are  made  of  muscle, 
and  have  a  soft  lining  like 
velvet.  The  stomach,  then, 
is  a  muscular  sac  with  a  soft 
lining.  It  lies  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  abdomen,  largely 
to  the  left  side  and  below 
the   heart.     Its    size   varies        oastuh-  <iiAND.    (m.ipimi.ii.) 


68 


PllYvSlOLOOY   FOR  CHILDREN 


in  different  individuals.  Its  length,  Avlien  fully  dis- 
tended witb  food,  is  about  ten  or  ele.en  inches,  and 
its  diameter  is  from  four  to  live  inches. 

The  stomach  has  an  opening  at  its  upper  end,  where 
food  comes  into  it  from  the  esophagus,  and  another 
opening  at  its  lower  end,  where  food  goes  out  into  the 
intestine. 

After  food  comes  into  the  stomach  it  is  mixed  with 
a  juice  called  gastric  juice.  Gastric  is  a  word  meaning 
"of  the  stomach,"  so  gastric  juice  simply  means  juice 
of  the  stomach.  The  whole  of  the  soft  lining  of  the 
stomach  is  full  of  little  glands  which  make  this  juice. 
On  page  G7  there  is  a  sketch  of  one  of  these  glands. 
It  is  made  much  larger  than  the  glands  really  are, 
that  you  may  see  what  they  are  like.  When  no  food 
is  in  the  stomach  the  glands  are  at  rest,  but  when 
food  comes  in  they  begin  to  make  gastric  juice  at 
once,  and  pour  it  out  into  the  stomach. 

Gastric  juice  has  the  power  to  dissolve  the  proteid 
part  of  our  food,  such  as  lean  meat,  white  of  egg,  and 
part  of  milk  and  vegetables.  It  cannot  dissolve  starch 
or  fat,  and  it  stops  the  action  of  saliva. 

Soon  after  food  has  been  swallowed,  the  muscles  at 
one  end  of  the  stomach  contract,  making  that  end 
smaller.    This  forces  the  food  to  the  other  end.    Then 


11 


HOW  OUR  FOOD  IS  CHANGED  INTO  BLOOD 


09 


the  muscles  at  that  end  contract,  while  the  fii-st  ones 
relax,  and  the  food  is  forced  back  again.  As  the 
food  is  kept  moving  from  one  end  of  the  stomach  to 
the  other,  it  is  mixed  with  the  gastric  juice,  and  the 
mixing  goes  on  until,  this  juice  has  completed  its 
work. 

The  food,  however,  does  not  all  remain  in  the 
stomach  until  digestion  there  is  finished.  As  soon  as 
any  part  of  it  is  ready,  it  is  squeezed  out  through  the 
lower  opening  into  the  intestine. 

A  small  part  of  the  food  is  absorbed  into  the  blood 
directly  from  the  stomach  without  passing  into  the 
intestine.  It  soaks  through  the  soft  lining  of  the 
stomach  into  the  blood  tubes  in  its  walls,  and  so 
becomes  a  part  of  the  blood  stream. 

Digestion  in  the  intestine.  —  Th  ■  intestine  is  a 
tube  which  extends  downward  from  the  stomach. 
The  upper  part  is  small  in  diameter  and  is  called  the 
small  intestine.  The  lower  part,  which  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  small  intestine,  is  larger  in  diameter,  and  is 
called  the  large  intestine.  The  small  and  the  large 
intestine  together  are  about  tvv-enty-five  or  thirty  feet 
long,  and  are  nicely  folded  up  in  the  abdomen  so  as  to 
take  up  very  little  room.  The  wall  of  the  intestine  is 
made  up  largely  of  muscle,  and  has  a  soft  lining  like 


70 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOK   CHILUUEX 


M 


the  liuiui?  of  the  stoaiath.     Digestion  in  the  intestine 
takes  ])hice  mainly  in  the  small  inlestine. 

In  the  mouth,  part  of  the  food  is  change.]  by  a 
fluid,  the  saliva.  In  the  stomach,  another  part  of  the 
food  is  changed  by  a  flui<l,  the  gastric  juice.  In  the 
small  intestine,  food  is  changed  by  three  fluids.  One 
of  these,  the  pancreatic  juice,  is  ma<le  by  the  pancreas ; 
another,  the  bile,  is  made  by  the  liver;  and  the  third, 
the  intestinal  juice,  is  made  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine. 

The  pancreas,  or  sweetbread,  is  a  gland  which  lies 
behind  the  stomach.  It  makes  the  most  v/ondei-ful 
fluid  of  all,  the  pancreatic  juice.  The  pancreatic 
juice  can  do  what  saliva  does,  for  it  can  change  starch 
to  sugar.  It  can  do  what  gastric  juice  does,  for  it 
<'an  digest  proteids.  And  it  can  do  what  neither 
saliva  nor  gastric  juice  cy?  do, — it  can  digest  fat. 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body.  It  lies 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  on  the  right  side, 
and  close  to  the  lower  ribs.  It  is  made  up  of  liver 
cells  and  blood  tubes,  held  together  by  connective  tis- 
sue. These  cells  take  from  the  blood  certain  material, 
and  with  it  make  a  bitter  fluid,  called  bile.  Tho  liver 
is  making  bile  all  the  time,  but  this  fluid  ]msses  into 
the  intestine  only  when  digestion  is  going  on.  When 
digestion  is  not  going  on,  the  bile  is  stored  in  a  little 


now   urn   FOOD    IS   ilIAMiKU    INTO   BLOOD 


71 


pear-Hhai>e«l   ba<r,  the  gall   bla<l(ler,  ulikli    is   tiuked 
awav  iiiulei-  the  liver.     Tiie  bile  does  not,  by  itself, 


THE    LIVElt    \NI>    PANtKKAS. 

(XoTB  :  Sfc  Al>l>t'iitlix  for  Key.) 


digest  food,  but  it  helps  the  pancreatic  juice  to  <lo  so. 
The  inteBtinal  juice  is  made  by  small  glands  in  the 
soft  lining  of  the  intestine.     Its  power  to  digest  food 


72 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOB  CHILDKEX 


is  very  sliglit.     Its  most  important  use  is  to  assist  in 
the  digestion  of  starch  and  cane  sngar. 

When  the  food  enters  tlie  small  intestine  from  the 
stomach  much  of  it  is  still  undigested.  It  then  meets 
the  bile  and  the  pancreatic  juice.  These  fluids,  com- 
ing from  the  pancreas  and  the  liver,  enter  the  intestine 
by  a  small  tube  near  the  place  where  the  food  entei-s 
from  the  stomach.  The  muscles  in  the  wall  of  the 
intestine  contract  and  force  the  food  along  in  the  in- 
testine, so  that  it  becomes  mixed  with  the  pancreatic 
juice,  the  bile,  and  the  intestinal  juice. 

By  the  combined  action  of  these  juices  any  starch 
that  escaped  digestion  in  the  mouth  is  changed  to 
sugar,  any  proteid  that  escaped  digestion  in  the  stomach 
is  digested,  and  the  fats  ui)on  which  the  saliva  and 
gastric  juice  have  no  power  are  also  digested.  Water 
is  not  digested,  for  it  does  not  require  to  be  changed, 
and  salt  is  dissolved  but  not  changed. 

As  a  result  of  tfo  change-  brought  about  by  diges- 
tion, the  food  which  -was  swallowed  as  Thread,  butter, 
meat,  ])otatoes,  milk,  water,  salt,  and  so  on,  becomes 
a  milk-like  liquid  in  the  intestine.  The  nourishing 
part  of  the  food  contained  in  this  milk-like  liciuid  is 
now  ready  to  be  taken  into  the  blood  tubes  and 
become  blood. 


UOW   OUR  FOOD   16  CUA>'Om>   INTO   BLOOD 


73 


How  food  in  taken  Into  bloocl  tulies. — You  will 
remember  that  the  intestine  lias  a  lining  Avliieli  is  soft 
like  velvet.  Tbo  surface  of  this  soft  lining  in  the  small 
intestine  has  little  tongue-like  i^rojections.  One  of 
these  little  projections  is  called  a  villu;*,  while  villi  is 
the  name  given  to  more  than  one.  There  are  ahout 
four  million  villi  in  the  small  intestine,  but  there  ai-e 
none  in  the  large  one. 

In  each  cf  these  villi  there  are  very  small  blood  t  ubes, 
and  also  one  or  more  little  tubes  called  lacteals.  The 
word  lacteal  means  like  milk,  and  this  name  is  given 
to  the  tubes  because  they  contain  a  fluid  which  looks 
like  milk. 

As  food  is  digested  in  the  intestine  it  soaks,  or 
oozes,  through  the  walls  of  the  villi.  The  proteids, 
sugar,  and  mineral  pai-t  of  the  food  then  pass  on 
through  the  walls  of  the  little  blood  tubes,  mix  with 
the  blood,  and  go  with  it  from  these  little  tubes  into 
larger  ones  called  veins. 

The  digested  fats  do  not  pass  through  the  walls 
of  the  little  blood  tubes  of  the  villi,  but  go  through 
the  walls  of  the  lacteals.  In  the  lacteals  the  digested 
fats  have  the  appearance  of  a  milky  fluid.  The 
lacteals  pass  through  a  number  of  tiny  glands,  and 
unite  again  and  again  to  form  lai^er  tubes.     These 


74 


PHYSloUMiV    F<»i:   (  llll,l»UK.N 


Imiivr  tubes  fin.illy  unite  to  make 
one  tube  about  tlie  nize  of  a  g(M)se 
(luill,  or  a  small  lead  jwHcil,  an«l 
tliis  pouiH  its  contents  into  a  large 
vein  to  mix  \'  ith  the  blood. 

AI**olioI. — AI<oli«»l  nuikes  the 
small  blood  tubes  in  the  lining  of 
the  stomaeh  larger,  and  they  then 
'^^  contain  a  greater  am(»unt  of  blo«Ml 
than  usual.  This  gives  a  rechlish 
a[>i>earance  to  the  lining  of  the 
stomach,  just  as  a  nuistard  j>laster 
will  cause  a  reddish  appearance  of 
the  skui.  If  only  a  small  amount 
of  alcohol  is  taken,  the  blood  tubes  are  enlarged  for  a 
shi)rt  time,  and  then  retum  to  their  iisual  size. 

The  chief  danger  in  drinking  a  small  amount  of 
alcoholic  li<pior  occasionally  is  not  in  an  immediate 
injury  to  the  stomach,  or  any  other  organ,  but  in  the 
fact  that  this  drinking  of  small  amounts  leads  so  often 
to  the  drinking  of  larger  amounts  which  are  harmful, 
and  to  the  fonning  of  a  habit  of  drinking  which  cannot 
be  given  up,  even  when  a  man  knows  that  alcoholic 
liijuor  is  injuring  him.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that 
the  only  safe  plan  is  not  tf»  drink  alcoholic  liijuors. 


VII. I. IS. 
iMugnifliHl.) 


HOW   <>ru    FO«H»    IS   <-||AN<il-:i)   INTO    IU.«»o|) 


7:. 


If  alr(>holic  li«iuor  is  taken  frt'cjueiitly,  cvtMi  in 
inodei-jite  (lUuntitieH,  the  1)1«mhI  tuljes  in  tlie  rmiu<;  of 
tlie  stoiMticli  are  kept  iari^e,  and  tliu.s  tlie  linini^  ctui- 
tiniies  to  be  inHanie<l.  The  pistrie  juiee  is  h'ss  ahh' 
to  <h»  its  u»)rk,  and  dij^festiim  in  tiie  stonuu'h  re(|uiivs 
more  tine  than  it  sliouhl. 

When  larj^e  amounts  oi  ,»!'  •■»<»1  are  taken  for  a 
leni^rli  of  time  the  extreme  ii  :  .nhiii'tm  of  the  liniii!.' 
of  tlu-  stomach  causes  a  seri<>  'lis-'use,  an<l  in  tiie  end 
it  may  become  impossible  for  the  htomach  to  r<'' »iii 
and  «liirest  food. 

Tlie  larfi^e  ajuount  of  liqui<l  that  is  often  taken  by 
])eer  drinkers  stretches  the  wall  of  the  stomach  an<l 
•Treatlv  increases  its  size.  This  stretching;  weakens  the 
muscles  in  the  wall  of  the  stomacli,  so  that  food  is  not 
forced  on  into  the  intestines  so  prom})tly  as  it  should 
be.     This  is  a  frequent  cause  of  jntinful  indit^estion. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  liver.— When  alcohol  is 
swallowed  it  quickly  soaks  throui^h  the  soft  lininj;  of 
the  stomach  into  the  blood  tubes  in  its  wall,  and  then 
goes  with  the  bloo<l  to  the  liver.  The  liver  is,  there- 
fore,  the  first  oriran  to  receive  the  alcohol  after  it 
enters  the  blood. 

Alcohol  is  particularly  injurious  to  the  cells  of  the 
liver,  and  is  the  chief  cause  of  a  disease  of  the  liver 


76 


PHYSIOLOGY  FOR  CHILDREN 


wLich  often  proves  fatal.  In  this  disease  the  liver 
becomes  larger  than  it  should  be.  It  may  afterwards 
paitly  waste  away  and  have  a  shriveled,  hardened 
appearance.    It  is  then  commonly  called  a  "  hob-nailed 

liver." 

Etfect  of  tobacco  on  digestion. — The  continued 
use  of  tobacco,  especially  if  it  is  used  to  excess,  often 
interferes  with  digestion.  When  it  is  used  by  young 
persons  it  hinders  growth,  because  it  prevents  the 
proper  nourishing  of  the  body. 

Jay  W.  Seaver,  M.D.,  Director  of  the  Yale  Uni- 
versity gymnasium,  proved  that  the  use  of  tobacco 
has  this  effect.  At  different  times,  he  made  measure- 
ments of  students  to  learn  how  much  they  had  grown, 
and  he  found  that  the  average  growth  of  those  who 
di<l  not  use  tobacco  was  considerably  greater  than 
the  average  growth  of  those  who  did  use  it. 


Wc  have  learned  that : 

1.  Food  must  be  changed  into  blood  before  the  body  can  use  it. 

2.  This  change  begins  in  the  mouth,  and  is  completed  in  the  stomach  and 
the  intestine. 

3.  In  the  month,  food  is  chewed  and  mixed  with  saliva. 

4.  Our  teeth  cut  and  grind  the  food  into  small  pieces. 

5.  Saliva  moistens  the  food,  and  changes  starch  to  a  kind  of  sugar. 

6.  From  the  mouth,  food  passes  through  the  esophagus  to  the  stomach. 

7.  A  little  lid  keeps  food  from  getting  into  the  windpipe. 


now   OUR  FOOD  IS   CHANGED   INTO   BLOOD 


77 


8.  In  the  stomach,  food  is  changed  by  gastric  juice. 

9.  Gastric  juice  can  dissolve  proteid  food. 

10.  In  tiie  intestine,  food  is  changed  by  bile,  pancivatic  juice,  and  intes- 
tinal juice. 

11.  Bile  assists  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  can  dissolve  starch,  proteid 
and  fat. 

12.  Bile  is  made  in  the  liver,  and  pancreatic  juice  in  the  pancreas. 

l:j.  When  food  is  digested,  it  is  taken  up  by  little  veins  and  other 
small  tubes,  called  lactcals,  iu  tho  wall  of  the  intestine,  aud  mixed  with 
the  blood. 


CHAPTER  VII 

HOW   THE    PLOOD    BI'ILDS    LI'   THE   BOPY 

The  blood  carries  food  for  the  body — iVfter 
leather,  yarn,  and  clotb  are  manufactured  they  are 
not  stored  away  and  locked  up  in  factories,  but  are 
sent  out  over  the  country  by  railr<»ads,  cunak,  and 
rivers  to  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  so  that  the  people 
who  need  theui  can  tind  and  use  them. 

In  the  same  way,  after  our  food  is  manufactured 
into  blood  it  «loes  not  remain  in  the  factory,  but  is 
sent  out  to  all  parts  of  the  bo<ly,  so  that  it  can  be 
used  in  building  them  up  and  repairing  them. 

Instead  of  railroads,  canals,  and  rivers  we  have 
running  through  our  bodies  a  system  of  little  tul)es; 
and  instead  of  railroad  trains  and  canal  boats  we 
have  the  warm,  red  bloo<l  flowing  through  these 
tubes,  loaded  with  material  the  body  needs  to  build 
it  up.  In  your  chest  is  the  heart,  a  nuiscular  ]mmp, 
which  works  without  ceasing  day  and  night  as  long 
as  you  live,  and  forces  the  blood  through  all  of 
the  "blood  tubes,  even  to  the  very  tips  <.f  your  fingers 

and  t<»e8. 

The    arterien.— There    is   a  large  blood  tul»e,  the 


now   TIIK   BLOOD    HIILUS    IP  TIIK   1«)DY  <$) 

aorta,  into  which  blood  comes  out  from  the  lieait. 
You  know  how  branches  are  given  off  from  the  trunk 
and  hirger  limbs  of  a  tree.     'Die  aorta  also  gives  off 


HEAUT    AND    ADKTA. 
u,  Bmmliiii  of  Aorla. 

branches  almost  at  its  very  beginning,  and  all  along 
ils  course.  Each  of  these  branches  divides  again  and 
aL'ain  into  smaller  ones,  an<l  the  name  arteries  is  given 
to  the  aorta  and  its  larger  branches,  through  which 


^^:-:-&l--':W?S.i 


'.tjmin^^i 


80 


PHYSIOLOGY   FO:S  CHILDREN 


the  blood  flows  out  from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the 
body. 

The  capillaries. — This  dividing  of  the  arteries 
iroes  on  until  the  little  blootl  tubes  are  so  small  that 
you  cannot  see  them,  and  they  are  then  called  capilla- 
ries. There  are  so  many  of  these  capillaries,  and  they 
lie  so  closely  together  that  you  cannot  i)ut  the  point 
of  a  needle  between  them.  If  you  pierce  your  skin 
with  a  needle,  its  jwint  will  pass  through  one  or  more 
tiny  capillaries  and  allow  the  blood  to  flow  from  them. 

The  veins. — After  flowing  through  the  capillaries, 
the  blood  commences  to  return  to  the  heart,  and  the 
tubes  through  which  it  returns  are  called  veins.  You 
have  seen  little  rills  on  a  hillside  unite  to  make  a  larger 
stream,  and  you  know  that  larger  streams  unite  to 
make  one  still  larger,  until  a  great  river  is  formed. 
In  a  similar  way,  these  tiny  capillaries  unite  to  make 
small  veins,  and  these  small  veins  unite  to  make  largei- 
ones,  until  all  the  veins  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
body  have  joined  to  form  one  large  vein  tlirough 
which  the  blood  flows  l)ack  to  the  heart.  All  the 
cai)illaries  and  veins  of  the  upper  ]>art  of  the  body 
unite  in  the  same  wav  to  form  another  large  vein 
through  which  the  blood  flows  back  to  the  heart. 

You  have  only  one  body ;  but  different  parts  of  it, 


W]u. 


HOW   THK  BLOOD   Bl'ILDS    TP   TlIK   lUJDY 


81 


such  as  the  head,  the  arms,  the  hands,  liuve  difFerent 
names.  Tliere  is  only  one  set  of  blood  tubes,  but 
one  part  of  it  is  called  arteries,  another  pui-t  c'a])il- 
laries,  and  a  third  part  veins. 

If  you  start  at  one  p<iint  in  u  circle  and  follow  tlie 
cii-cumfei-ence  you  will  come  round  to  the  jioint  from 
which  you  stalled.  The  blood  starts  from  tlie  lieart, 
jjjoes  through  the  body,  and  comes  buck  to  the  heart 
very  much  as  if  it  were  moving  in  a  circle.  For  this 
reason  it  is  said  to  circulate  through  the  body. 

What  takeH  place  in  the  capilhiries. — The  walls 
of  the  capillaries  are  very  thin,  thinner  than  the  thin- 
nest paper  you  ever  saw.  While  the  blood  is  flowing 
through  the  capillaries,  the  food  in  the  blood  oozes 
through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  and  feeds  the  tis- 
sues around  them. 

Oxygen  is  one  of  the  gases  of  which  air  is  com- 
posed. As  the  blood  flows  through  the  lungs  it 
crets  oxviren  from  the  air  we  breathe.  This  ox^iren 
is  earned  by  the  blood  to  all  ]>arts  of  the  body, 
.ind  afterwards  goes  out  through  the  walls  of  the 
capillaries  to  the  tissues,  just  as  food  j)asses  out  to 
the  tissues.  While  these  are  going  out  from  the 
blood,  waste  matter,  made  by  the  using  up  of  the 
food  and  the  wearing  out  of  the  tissues,  comes  into 


82 


1*IIYSI<»Lo<;Y    roU  ClIILDRKX 


the  blood  from  tlie  tissues,  tlirouirU  the  walls  of  the 
eapillaiies. 

This  exc-hanfre  between  the  blood  and  the  tissues 
takes   place   only  iu    the  capillaries  and   not    in  the 


ARTERY,    CAPILLARIES,    AND   \T.\S. 

iMiiKliiliiil.l 

arteries  t»r  veins.  The  walls  of  the  ai-teries  and 
veins  are  too  thiek  to  let  the  food  and  oxygen  go 
out  or  the  waste  matter  come  \\..  In  the  arteries 
the  blood  simply  flows  out  to  the  capillaries  from  the 
heart,  and  in  the  veins  it  simi)ly  flows  back  frtnn  the 
capillaries  to  the  heart. 

You  have  now  learned  three  things  which  the  blood 
does    as  it    circulates  through  the  body.      It  brings 


UOW  THE  BLOOD   BIILUS    UP  THE   BODY 


83 


food  to  the  tissues,  it  bringn  oxygen  to  the  tissue!*,  and 
it  carries  away  matter  that  is  worn  out  un<l  useless. 

What  the  bl<MHl  Ih  Ilk*'.— When  tlie  ))l(>(>d  tiows 
from  a  cut  in  your  finger  it  api)ears  to  be  simply  a 
red  fluid,  but  it  does  not  long  remain  fluid.  It  soon 
becomes  sticky,  and  in  a  few  minutes  thickens  into  a 
mass  which  resembles  jelly.  This  jelly-like  mass  is 
called  a  clot. 

It  is  a  <;ood  thing  for  us 
that  bliMxl  clots,  for  if  it 
did  not  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult, or  impossible,  to  sto]) 
bleeding,  even  from  a  small 
cut  or  ^^•ound.  The  clot  is 
nature's  plug  to  stop  bleed- 


Hlg. 


KED   AND   WHITE   CORPUSCLES. 

(Muiiiiillfil.) 


The  blood  eorpiiscleH.— If  you  should  look  at  a 
drop  of  blood  under  a  microscope  you  would  see  a 
large  number  of  tiny  bodies,  called  corj)Uscles,  floating 
about.  These  corpuscles  float  in  a  watery  fluid  and 
are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  without  tb-^ 
microscope.     They  are  of  two  kind?,  red  and  white. 

The  red  t'orpiiscles. — The  red  corjiuscles  art  tiny 
disks,  flat,  soft,  and  round,  and  are  of  great  use  to  us, 
although  they  are  so  very  small.    The  I'eal  business  of 


84 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


these  little  tbings  is  to  cany  oxygen,  which  they  get 
in  the  lungs  from  the  air  we  breathe.  They  float 
along  in  the  blood  stream,  and,  as  they  are  pas^sing 
through  the  capillaries,  oxygen  escapes  from  theiu  and 
goes  through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  to  the  tissues. 

Color  of  the  blood.— The  color  of  the  blood  is 
due  to  its  Tfd  oorimscles.  If  these  were  taken  out 
the  remaining  i^art  of  the  blood  would  be  colorless, 
and  would  look  like  water.  The  red  corpuscles  change 
from  a  dark  bluish-red  to  a  bright  red  color  when  they 
take  in  oxygen  in  the  lungs.  When  the  red  corpusdes 
lose  oxygen  in  the  capillaries  their  color  changes  frf)m 
a  brif'ht  red  to  a  dark  bluish-red.  It  is  for  this  rt«son 
that  the  blood  has  a  bright  red  color  in  the  arteries 
and  a  dark  bluish-red  color  in  the  veins. 

The  white  corpuscles.— The  white  corpuscles  are 
slightly  larger  than  the  red  ones,  and  are  fewer  in 
number.  A  drop  of  blood  has  about  five  hundred 
red  corpuscles  for  each  white  one. 

The  white  corpuscles  are  made  up  of  a  very  soft, 
jelly-like  substance,  and  tliey  can  readily  change  their 
shape.  At  one  time  a  white  corpuscle  may  be  quite 
round.  At  another  time  part  of  the  corpuscle  may 
be  ]>ushed  out  so  as  to  resemble  a  tiny  arm,  and  a 
corpuscle  may  have  more  than  one  of  these  I' 't}&  aims 


HOW    THE   BLOOD    BUILDS    II*  THK   HODY 


86 


at  the  same  time.  A  sumll  arm  is  able  to  encircle 
little  solid  particles  that  have  foninl  their  way  into 
the  blood  and  are  injuring  our  health.  Such  i)urticle^ 
may  thus  be  enclosed  in  the  body  of  a  white  coi'puscie 
and  be  destroyed. 

In  this  way  white  corpuscles  protect  our  bodies 
from  germs  of  disease.  When  disease  germs,  or  bac- 
teria, enter  the  body  through  a  wound,  or  in  any  other 
way,  white  corpuscles  fight  them  and  try  to  destroy 
them.  Sometimes,  when  the  bacteria  are  very  strong, 
the  battle  becomes  so  fierce  that  many  white  corpus- 
cles are  killed.  The  dead  bodies  of  these  corpuscles 
then  form  what  we  call  matter,  or  pus. 

It  is  believed  also  that  the  white  corpuscles  aid,  in 
some  way,  in  the  clotting  of  blood. 

The  keart. — Many  of  you  have  seen  a  sheep's  heart. 
It  is  a  good  deal  like  a  human  heart.  The  heai  -i 
iT^de  of  muscle.  If  you  cut  a  sheep's  heart  op*^n  you 
will  see  ^hat  it  is  not  solid  muscle,  })ut  within  it  are 
hollow^  ])]aces,  calle<l  cavities.  You  will  also  see  how 
thick  and  strong  the  walls  of  these  cavities  are. 

The  human  heart  is  about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist. 
A  partition  down  the  middle  of  it  divides  it  into  a 
right  side  and  a  left  side.  This  partition  wall  is  so 
tight  and  strong  that  the  blood  in  one  side  cannot  get 


m 


l»l!YSUU,0«}Y    FOir   4lllLI>l{K.N 


P' 


r 


I' 


tlii'ouju'li  into  the  other  side,     Kaeh  shle  is  (livi«le<l  int«» 
an  U|>i»er  cuvity  hihI  u  lower  cuvity. 

How  the  heart  woi'kH. — If  you  take  in  voiir  Imml 
a  small  rubl)er  hall  that  has  a  hole  in  it,  s<|ueeze  the 


fiT.niOS    OF   HEART,    SHOWING   THfc    VOIR   (AMl'KS. 

air  out  of  it,  and  then  hohl  it  in  a  basin  of  water,  the 
ball  will  fill  with  water  as  soon  as  you  open  your 
hand.  If  you  now  close  your  hand  tightly  upon  the 
ball  you  will  force  the  water  out  through  the  hole.  If 
you  open  and  ch)8e  your  hand  slowly  several  times,  you 


HOW   TIIK   BLOOD    mil.DS    IP  TIIK    HOI»Y 


87 


will  see  thiit  each  time  you  o{>eii  your  IuukI  the  h.ill 
fills  witli  water,  an<l  endi  time  you  riow*'  youi-  ii.in<l 
the  water  in  force*  1  out. 

Tin*  four  eavitien  of  the  heart  are  tijietj  and  emptied 
ill  a  somewhat  similar  way.  The  uuis<'les  of  whieh  the 
walls  of  the  heart  are  composed  contract  and  relax. 
When  they  relax  they  open  the  cavities,  and  Mood 
runs  in  from  the  veins.  When  these  nuiscles  contract 
they  close  the  cavities,  an«l  Mood  is  s«jueeze«l  out  int»» 
the  arteries.  Both  sides  of  the  heart,  the  riirht  side 
atid  the  left  side,  oi>en  at  the  same  time  and  ch)se  at 
the  same  time. 

The  closinir  of  the  rijjjht  side  forces  dark  Miiish-red 
blood  into  and  throui^h  the  Iniiii^s,  and  on  into  tiie  left 
side  of  the  heart.  While  iroinjj^  throuirh  tin'  hniirs  this 
dark  blood,  just  in  a  twinklinir,  receives  oxyj^en  from 
the  air,  and  is  chani^e<l  to  a  bright  red  color. 

The  left  side  closes  with  '^reat  power.  Its  closiui; 
semis  the  bri<^ht  led  blood  rusliinir  out  throiiiiii  the 
larffe  artery,  the  aorta,  on  throuirh  the  small  arteries, 
throuijh  the  tiny  capillaries,  tlin>uirh  the  litth'  veins, 
and  back  throtii^h  the  large  veins  into  the  riu'ht  side 
of  the  lieiirt. 

The  heart,  then,  is  like  two  little  [tumps  fastened  to- 
gether.    The  right  side  forces  the  dark  blood  through 


MKROCOPT  RISOUmON  TBT  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  l*>.  2) 


1.0 


t.l 


ISO     ^^" 


12.5 


Itt 
U 
IK 


tarn 


m    12.0 


RI.8 


^ 


/APPLIED  BVMGE    Ir 


ieS3  Cast  Moin  Strwl 

RochM««r.  Nn  Yofk       14608      USA 

(71«)  482  -  OJOO  -  Ptwo. 

(7te)  zaa  -  sm9  -  Fm 


88 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


the  lungs ;  the  left  side,  which  is  stronger,  forces  the 
bright  red  blood  through  the  body. 

The  beat  of  the  heart. — The  heart  lies  against 
the  chest  wall  just  behind  the  ribs.  The  small  end 
of  it  points  downwards,  and  a  little  towards  the  left 
side  of  the  body.  As  the  heart  contracts  suddenly 
and  with  great  force  it  jars  the  chest  wall.  Each  con- 
traction of  the  heart  is  called  a  beat.  When  the  heart 
is  beating  slowly  and  quietly  it  may  not  be  easy  to  feel 
the  jar.  But  activ^e  exercise,  such  as  running,  causes 
the  heart  to  beat  faster  and  stronger,  and  then  the  jar 
is  easily  felt  each  time  the  heart  beats. 

The  pulse. — The  pulse  is  caused  by  the  beating  of 
the  heart.  It  can  be  felt  in  all  the  arteries,  but  not  in 
the  capillaries  or  veins.  A  doctor  usually  feels  your 
pulse  at  the  wrist  because  there  the  artery  is  near  the 
surface.  In  health  the  heart  beats,  on  an  average, 
about  seventy-two  times  a  minute ;  but  during  fever  it 
beats  faster,  and  so  the  doctor  counts  the  pulse  beats 
to  help  him  find  out  the  condition  of  ymr  heart. 

Health  of  the  heart — What  p  v.-^ndertul  little 
worker  the  heart  is  !  Da>'  and  night,  summer  and 
winter,  year  after  year,  it  beats  on  and  on,  never  taking 
a  holiday.  If  yours  should  stop  beating  for  just  one 
short  minute  you  would  die. 


HOW   THE   BLOOD   BUILIM   UP  THK   BODY 


89 


Without  a  sound,  strong  lieart  you  can  never  l)e 
perfectly  healthy.  Some  diseases  that  are  often  caused 
by  dampness  and  by  wearing  wet  clothing  are  lial)le 
to  injure  the  heart.  For  this  reason  every  one  slioultl 
remember  these  short  rules : 

Never  sit  on  wet  grass  or  damp  ground. 

Never  sleep  in  a  damp  bed  or  in  a  })edroom  with 
damp  walls. 

Whenever  your  clothing  gets  wet  put  on  dry 
clothing  as  soon  as  you  can. 

Do  not  live  in  a  house  with  a  damp  cellar  or  with 
damp  walls. 

Keep  your  feet  dry  and  warm. 

How  the  circulation  may  be  affected. — The 
circulation  of  the  blood  may  be  hindered  in  many 
ways.  Large  veins  lie  just  under  the  skin  and  near 
the  surface.  Tight  clothing  prevents  the  blood  from 
flowing  freely  and  easily  through  these  veins,  Tight 
boots  make  cold  feet  because  they  prevent  the  free 
flow  of  the  blood.  Tight  garters,  also,  are  a  frequent 
cause  of  cold  feet.  The  heart  needs  plenty  of  room  in 
order  to  wo-k  well.  Tight  waists  and  other  tight 
clothing  press  in  the  soft  walls  of  the  chest  and  inter- 
fere with  the  lieart. 

Exercise  makes  the  blood  circulate  well.     A  brisk 


90 


lMIYSI<»LO(iY    FOR  CIIILDKKX 


i£it 


walk  brings  a  warm  glow  to  the  skin.  A  game  of 
l>all  oi-  blind  mans  buff  will  (juicken  the  circulation 
and  warm  up  the  body.  Such  exercise  will  help  to 
make  you  healthy  and  strong. 

A  daily  bath  will  aid  the  circulation,  if  it  is  fol- 
lowed  by  brisk  rubbing  with  a  coarse  towel  till  a 
warm  glow  is  felt  in  the  skin. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  heart.— The  first  effect  of 
alcohol  on  the  heart  is  to  make  it  beat  faster  than 
usual,  but  after  a  short  time  the  heart  will  beat  more 
slowly  than  it  did  before  the  alcohol  was  taken.  If, 
however,  a  very  large  amount  is  taken,  as  is  sometimes 
done  on  a  wager,  it  may  stop  the  Ideating  of  the  heart 
almost  immediately,  and  cause  death. 

Some  alcoholic  liquors,  such  as  wine  and  beer,  have 
a  tendency  to  produce  too  nnich  fat.  A  great  deal  of 
fat  often  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  heart  and  between 
the  fibres  of  its  muscles,  so  that  the  heart  becomes 
weaker  than  it  was.  This  diseased  condition  is  called 
fatty  heart. 

Eifect  of  alcohol  on  the  circulation. — The  \ya\h 
of  the  arteries  contain  involuntary  muscles.  When 
these  nuiscles  contract  the  arteries  become  smaller 
and  will  hold  less  blood  ;  when  these  muscles  ndax  the 
arteries   become   larger   and   will    hold   mo-re   blood. 


HOW   TIIK   BLOOD   BUILDS    \V  THE   BODY 


01 


Nerves  ending  in  these  muscles  cause  tlieni  to  contract 
and  relax. 

Alcohol  weakens  the  nerves  which  control  the  mus- 
cles of  the  arteries,  and  then  the  nuiscles  relax.     Thus 


APPKARANCE     OF     ARTERIES     IN' 
LINING  OF  HEALTHY  STOMACH. 


AI'PEAUANC'E  OF  ARTERIES    EN- 
LARGED   BY    ALCOHOL. 


alcohol  causes  the  small  arteries  throughout  the  body 
to  become  enlarged  and  to  hold  more  blood  than  usual. 
A  well-known  illustration  of  this  is  the  flush  of  the 
face  that  follows  the  drinking  of  alcoholic  liipior. 

The  continued  use  of  alcoholic  liquor,  especially  of 
beer,  tends  to  the  forming  of  fat  in  the  walls  of  the 
artenes.  This  fat  weakens  the  arteries  and  makes  them 
less  able  to  bear  the  la-essure  of  the  blood  as  it  is 
forced  through  them  by  the  heart.    Any  sudden  strain 


92 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOK  CHILDREN 


on  the  wall  of  an  artery  may  then  cause  a  break,  which 
may  produce  death. 

Effect    of  alcohol   on  the    blood.— Besides    its 

effect  on  the  heart  and  on  the  arteries,  alcohol  affects 
also  the  blood  itself.  It  acts  upon  the  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blootl  and  lessens  their  power  to  take  up  oxygen 
and  give  it  out  to  the  tissues.  In  this  way  every  organ 
of  the  body  is  affected  by  alcohol  in  the  blood,  for 
every  part  of  the  body  neet  <  oxygen  and  depends 
upon  the  blood  for  its  supply. 

Effect  of  tobacco  on  the  heart.— The  use  of 
tobacco  often  causes  the  heart  to  beat  irregularly, 
because  tobacco  contains  a  deadly  poison  called  nico- 
tine, which  acts  upon  the  nerves  that  control  the  beat- 
ing of  the  heart.  Physicians  use  the  name  "  tobacco 
heart  "  in  speaking  of  a  heart  which  has  been  injured 
b}  nicotine.  In  the  mildest  fonn  of  this  disease  there 
is  a  slight  fluttering  of  the  heart  and  an  uncomfortable 
feeling  in  the  left  side  of  the  chest.  In  more  severe 
attiicks  the  heart  beats  violently  and  causes  great 
distress. 

We  have  learned  that : 

1.  Every  part  of  the  body  is  supplied  with  bloo<l  tubes. 

2.  The  heart  forces  blood  through  these  tulies. 

3.  The  blootl  carries  food  and  oxygen  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
brings  back  waste  matter  from  all  parts. 


nOliV    THE  BLOOD  BUILDS  TP  THE  BODY 


93 


4.  The  tubes  through  which  blood  goes  out  to  all  parts  from  the  heart 
arc  called  arteries. 

5.  The  arteries  divide  up  and  become  smaller  and  smaller,  until  they 
can  be  seen  only  with  a  microscoiM),  and  are  then  called  capillaries. 

0.  As  the  blood  is  going  througii  the  capillaries,  footl  and  oxygen  in  tho 
blood  go  through  the  walls  of  tho  capillaries  lo  tho  tissues  ;  and  waste 
matter  in  the  tissues  comes  through  these  walls  to  the  blood. 

7.  The  capillaries  unite  and  form  larger  tubes,  called  vein?,  which  carry 
the  blood  back  to  the  heart. 

8.  Blood  can  form  a  clot  and  thus  stop  bleeding  from  a  small  wound. 
0.  Blootl  consists  of  a  watery  fluid  and  corpuscles  floating  in  it. 

10.  The  red  corpuscles  give  the  blood  its  color. 

11.  After  these  corpuscles  take  in  oxygen  from  tho  air  in  the  lungs  they 
have  a  bright  red  color. 

13.  After  they  give  up  oxygen  to  the  tissues  they  have  a  dark  bluish-red 
color. 

13.  The  white  corpuscles  help  to  protect  our  bo»ly  from  disease. 

14.  The  heart  is  made  up  of  muscle.  It  contains  four  cavities,  which 
close  when  it  contracts  and  open  when  it  relaxes. 

15.  Blood  flows  from  veins  into  these  cavities  when  they  are  open,  and  is 
forced  out  into  the  arteries  when  the  cavities  close. 

16.  Each  time  the  heart  contracts  it  is  said  to  beat. 

17.  With  each  beat  there  is  a  throb  of  the  arteries  which  is  called  a  pulse. 

18.  The  use  of  alcohol  may  injure  the  heart,  the  arteries,  and  the  blood. 

19.  The  use  of  tobacco  may  injure  the  heart. 


li 


If  J  I 
III 


CHAFrER  VIII 


I  ^1 


■ 

DUINK8    WHICH    CONTAIN    ALCOHOL 

FerniiMitutioii.  —  While 
apples  are  lipeuing,  sugar  is 
fo»"  .1  *a  them.  The  juice  of 
pv-  com^wsed  largely  of 

watt  ,  i.i  which  the  sugar  i^ 
dissolved.  When  the  juice  is 
fii-st  pressed  out  of  the  apples 
it  contains  no  alcohol.  But 
unless  it  is  kept  cold  the  sugar 
in  the  juice  quickly  changes 
into  alcohol  and  a  gas,  which 
our  fathers  called  carbonic  aci«l 
gas,  but  which  to-day  is  called  carbon  dioxide.  This 
gas  escapes  in  little  bubbles,  which  may  be  seen  rising 
up  through  the  liquid,  but  the  alcohol  remains  in  it. 

The  process  by  which  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol 
and  carbon  dioxide  is  called  fermentation.  The  sugar 
may  be  obtained  from  the  juice  of  ripe  fruits,  and 
from  the  sap  of  such  plants  as  the  sugar-cane,  from 
the  starch  of  potatoes  or  of  such  ^Tains  as  \Nheat, 
corn,  rye,  and  barley. 

Fermentation  is  caused  by  little  plants,  called  fer- 


FERMENTATION    IN    A    GLASS 
OF   CIDER. 


DHIXKS    U'lIK  H   <'«»NTAIN    AUMUIoL 


95 


ineuts.  Thev  nre  ho  smiill  tlmt  tliev  cannot  Im«  seen 
witliont  tlie  aid  of  a  niicnwoope.  These  ferments 
fl<»at  about  in  the  air  and  UMl<j:e  on  the  akin  anil  steins 
of  apples,  i;i'a[>e8,  and  other  fruit. 

AVhen  the  graj);.^  and  apples  are  crushed  and 
pressetl,  ferments  are  washed  from  tliem  with  the 
juice,  or  fall  into  it  from  the  air.  ILivinif  once 
entered  the  juice,  they  grow  <juickly  and  increase  in 
number  rapidly.  While  gi'owini^  they  act  on  the 
suffai'  nud  chanjfe  it  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxi<le. 

How  iiialt  llquorH  are  made.  —  Beer,  ale,  and 
porter  are  made  from  grain.  The  giain  is  moistened 
and  then  allowed  to  sprout.  By  this  means  the  starch 
of  the  irrain  is  changed  into  sugar.  The  uri'aiv  or 
malt  as  it  is  now  called,  is  then  drie«l  and  ground,  and 
the  sugar  is  dissolved  out  with  water.  This  is  then 
boiled  \vith  hops,  and  yeast  is  added  because  it  con- 
tains a  ferment.  It  sets  up  fermentation,  by  which 
the  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 

How  distilled  litiuors  are  made.— When  water 
is  boiled  it  passes  away  as  a  vapor,  called  steam. 
When  alcohol  is  boiled  it  also  passes  away  as  vapor. 
As  the  steam,  or  vapor,  of  a  liquid  rises  it  may  be 
collected.  If  it  is  allowed  to  cool  it  quickly  changes 
back  to  a  liquid. 


90 


PIIYSIOLOCiV   Fob  ClIILDKEX 


[h 


When  wine  is  heated  the  alcohol  in  it  boils  and 
turns  to  vaiK)r,  and  part  of  the  water  changes  to 
steam  at  the  same  time.  The  two  vapors  are  then 
collected  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  entire  process  is 
cal'dd  distillation.  The  liquid  into  whicli  the  vapors 
cool  is  called  brandy.  A  pint  of  brandy  contains 
more  alcohol  and  less  water  than  a  pint  of  wine. 

Whisky  is  made  from  grain.  After  the  grain  has 
sprouted,  and  its  starch  has  changed  to  sugar,  water 
is  added  and  alcohol  is  formed  by  fennentation,  just 
as  in  the  making  of  beer.  Then  it  goes  through  the 
process  of  distillation.  The  alcohol  and  water  that 
pass  oif  as  vapor  are  collected  and  cooled  into  the 
liquid  called  whisky,  which,  like  brandy,  "s  made  up 
mainly  of  alcohol  and  water  in  about  equal  parts. 

Rum  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar-cane.  The 
sap  is  first  fermented  and  then  distilled. 

What  alcohol  is  like. — Alcohol  is  a  colorless, 
transparent  liquid.  It  looks  like  water,  but  it  has  a 
sharp,  burning  taste.  It  acts  verj^  differently  from 
water  on  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body.  Water 
is  necessary  for  life.  We  should  die  if  we  could  not 
get  it.  Alcohol  is  not  only  not  necessary,  but,  in  very 
many  cases,  it  Is  injurious  to  health,  and  thousands 
die  every  year  from  drinking  liquors  which  contain  it. 


DRINKS   WIIU'II   CONTAIN   AL(  OIIUL 


n 


carrwi]  ])y  the 

Thi>   ikmI  and 

4?i{«  heat  and 


I«  alcoli<»lic  liqiifir  ii  food? — We  have  leanietl 
that  one  use  of  food  is  to  rejiair  waste  and  buihl  ui> 
the  body.  It  is  from  food  that  blotnl,  bone,  niuscK', 
nen^e,  and  other  parts  of  the  Ijinly  are  made.  Altohol 
contains  none  of  the  material  necessary  to  repair  waste 
or  build  up  the  bmly. 

Another  use  of  food  is  to  |  r<.d»'ce  heat  and  ]»ower 
to  work.  The  footl  th;  contains  ilw  material  neces- 
sary for  this  is  t  irrie*'  by  th«  bl<  to  Mie  tissues, 
and  oxygen  from  the  air  we  breathe 
blood  to  the  tissues  at  the  same  tim- 
oxygen  unite  in  the  tissues,  and 
power  to  ^^■ork. 

Exi)eriments  show  that  some  of  the  .jiol  which  is 
taken  into  the  body  unites  witii  oxyu^i  \  the  tissues. 
AVhen  alcohol  unites  with  oxygen  in  th,  issue's  mome 
heat  is  produced.  But  the  alcohol  at  t  mnt-  inie 
ciinses  the  blood  tubes  of  the  skin  to  beconu  -pt.  «*<> 
that  more  blood  than  usual  flows  to  the  »»- 

the    body,    and  loses  heat  by   coming   neui  *• 

More  heat  is  thus  lost  from  the  surface  of  th»    * 
than  is  produced  in  the  tissues.     Therefore  i]        *T< 
of  alcohol  is  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  ■     I) 

When  alcohol  unites  with  oxygen  in  th«  !<  u-s, 
some  power  to  work  is  produced.      But  the  /en.   al 


98 


I'lIYSlOLonY    Foil  *  IIILUKKX 


stre  nj^h  of  tl«*  IkmI  y 
in  not  iiici'east*«l,  l)f- 
cause  the  alcohol  at 
at    the    saiiu'    time 
injuivs   the  tiH!»iies. 
It  leHsens  theiMJuer 
of  the  blood  to  cany 
oxygen,    and     acts 
u\Mm  the  nerves  to 
lessen,   or    <lestn\ 
their   control    over 
tlie   muscles.     'I'he 
amount    of    injury 
done    in    this   way 
de|)ends   upon    the 
jjuantity  of  alcohol 
taken.    The  effect  of  alcohol  in  lessening  the  muscular 
streiiirth  of  the  body  is  recognized,  as  we  have  ieanied, 
by  athletes,  for  when  they    are  training  for  contests 
they  do  not  use  it. 

Experiments  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out  the 
value  of  alcohol  as  food  were  recently  made  by  Dr. 
AV.  O.  Atwater,  professor  of  chemistry  in  AVesleyan 
Universitv,  Middletown,  Conn.  The  following  letter 
states  his  views  upon  this  question: 


ATHI.KTir   .STKKNOTH. 


DUINKS    WHICH  CONTAIN    AlA  oHoL 


'.»5» 


Mll>ULKU»\VN.  (OSS. 

March  •,'«,  I'.MKi. 

My  dear  Sir:  I  have  youra  of  larch  'i'ii\  witli  u  «|iit>tutiiiii 
of  u  slateiiH'ut  by  iiiyHi'lf  aa  follows  : 

"The  fa«'t  that  umler  curtain  roiiditiniis  uh'uhol  in  liiuitcc! 
quantities  Herves  part  <»f  tlie  f  neral  purport'  of  fooil.  dofs  not 
[irovo  c"  even  imply  that  it  in  generally  a  healthful,  econoiuiral. 
or  in  any  way  desirable  food  ;  nor  does  it  show  for  what  pur- 
IHJsea  or  under  what  'onditions  it  is  eitlier  des-nible  »tr  harm- 
ful. So  far  from  regarding  the  results  of  these  exi>erimt'nis  as 
showing  that  the  moderate  use  t»f  alcoholit;  litpiors  is  gener- 
ally to  Im5  recommended,  I  myself  believe  that  the  ii.on-  advis- 
able course  is  habitual  abstinence.  Kspeeially  ii'»  I  .'Uiphasize 
the  importance  of  abstinence  for  young  persons. 

"  Alcohol  is  an  excellent  thing  for  people  in  good  In  ullh. 
and  especially  for  young  people,  to  let  alone." 

The  quotation  is  correct. 

Very  truly  yours, 

W.  O.  Atwatkr. 


PoiHonouH  action  «f  alcoliollr  llqiioi-,  -It  is  well 
known  thai  alcoholic  li(iUor  m  huge  amounts  pnxlnces 
a  coudition  of  intoxication.  The  drowsiness,  stui)or, 
and  loss  of  consciousness  in  intoxication  are  caused  l»y 
the  action  of  alcohol  on  the  brain.  This  action  is  en- 
tirely different  fro  in  that  pro<hice<l  by  food  of  any 
klnd^  but  is  ({uite  like  the  action  produced  <»n  the 
brain  by  a  cla^s  of  Hubstances  called  narcotic  poisons. 


100 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR   CHILDREN 


In  many  cases  death  has  followed   the  drinking  of 
alcoholic  liquor. 

The  papers  frequently  report  cases  similar  to  the 
following,  and  a  record  of  them  can  easily  be  found  in 
the  office  of  the  Board  of  Health  in  ti.e  city  where 
they  occur : 

'•  Sarah  Hochman,  the  three-year-old  daughter  of  Harris 
Ilochman,  living  at  385  Marion  Street,  Brooklyn,  died  last 
night  in  St.  Mary's  Hospital.  The  child  was  admitted  to  the 
hospital  early  in  the  morning,  sufiPering  from  alcoholic  i)oi8on- 
ing.  She  was  in  a  stupor  at  the  time,  in  which  condition  she 
remained  up  to  the  time  of  her  d(  dth.  The  poisoning  was  the 
result  of  the  child's  eating  blackberries  prepared  in  alcohol." — 
Xeiv  York  Herald,  August  3,  1902. 


"  Seven-year-old  Pietro  Gordano  died  early  yesterday  morn- 
ing in  Roosevelt  Hospital  of  acute  alcoholism.  On  Sunday 
evening  there  was  a  wedding  at  his  home,  209  West  Sixty- 
fourth  Street.  Pietro  got  a  seat  at  the  wedding  table,  and  in 
some  way  managed  to  get  hold  of  a  quart  bottle  of  Italian 
wine,  a  little  more  than  half  full,  and  to  drink  most  of  it." — 
yew  York  Sun,  January  8,  1908. 

In  such  cases  the  alcohol  acts  only  as  a  poison.  In 
fact,  alcoholic  poisoning  is  a  medical  term  used  in 
stating  the  cause  of  death. 

Mistaken  notions  about  alcoliolic  drinlcs. — One 


DRINKS  WHICH   CONTAIN  ALCOHOL 


>,>1 


reason  why  alcoholic  drinks  are  used  is  that  people 
have  mistaken  notions  about  their  value.  Tiie  rosy 
look  and  the  fleshy  appearance  which  they  often  pro- 
duce cause  some  people  to  think  that  alcohol  is  good 
for  the  health.  But  this  is  not  true.  For  those  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  taking  alcoholic  drinks,  even  in 
moderate  quantities,  are  more  likely  to  become  ill,  and 
are  less  likely  to  recover  from  illness  than  those  who 
do  not  drink  alcohol  at  all. 

Another  mistaken  notion  in  regard  to  alcoholic 
drinks  is  that  they  must  be  good  because  they  are 
made  from  grain  and  fruit.  People  who  are  influ- 
enced by  this  notion  forget  that  grain  and  fruit  are 
not  always  good  for  food.  The  grain  may  become 
musty  and  the  fruit  may  decay,  the  change  which  ha** 
taken  place  making  them  entirely  unfit  for  food.  The 
fact  that  ripe  grain  and  fruit  are  good  for  food  does 
not  prove  that  alcohol  made  from  them  is  good  for 
food.  Grain  and  fruit  in  their  natural  state  do  not 
contain  any  alcohol.  They  must  first  be  changed  by 
fennentation    before   alcohol   can  be   obtained    from 

them. 

Mistaken  notions  in  regard  to  the  power  of  alcohol 
to  produce  muscular  strength  also  influence  some  per- 
sons to  use  it.     It  has,  however,  been  proved  that  men 


102 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOR  ("HILUKKN 


ill 


..iOaCULAB  STRENGTH. 


,1 


can  do  more  work  without  alcoholic  liquor  than  they 
can  when  they  use  it. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  who  was  one  of  the  <?reatest 
Americans  of  Washington's  time,  was  a  printer  when 
he  was  a  young  man.  In  his  autobiography  he  gives 
an  account  of  his  experience  as  a  pnnter  in  London. 
He  says,  "I  drank  only  water;  the  other  workmen, 
nearly  fifty  in  number,  were  great  drinkers  of  beer. 
On  t»ccasion  I  earned  up  and  down  stairs  a  large  form 
of  types  in  each  hand,  when  others  carried  but  one 
in  both  hands.  They  wondered  to  see,  from  this  and 
several   instances,  that  the  Water-American,  as  they 


DUINKS    WHICH    ((»NTAIN    AL( OHOL 


i<>:i 


called  me,  was  stronger  tliaii  themselves,  who  drank 
strong  beer.  My  companion  at  the  jness  drank  eveiv 
(hiy  a  pint  before  breakfast,  a  pint  at  bieakfast  w  ith 
his  bread  and  cheese,  a  pint  between  breakfast  and 
diinier,  a  pint  at  dinner,  a  pint  in  the  afternoon  alxnit 
six  o'clock,  and  another  when  he  had  tlone  his  «hiy's 
work.  I  thouirht  it  a  detestable  cnstom,  but  it  was 
necessary,  he  supposed,  to  drink  strong  beer  that  he 
miirht  be  strong  to  labt>r.'' 

The  idea  that  the  temi)erate  use  of  alcoholic  li(iuor 
jn-olongs  life  is  another  mistaken  notion,  as  is  proved 
by  the  expeiience  of  life  insurance  companies.  The 
following  is  from  a  letter  leceived  from  Dr.  Ilenrv 
Tuck,  Vice-President  of  the  New  York  Life  Insurance 
Comi)any. 

New  Youk.  Febriiarii  U,  litou. 

Dear  Sir :  Your  letter  of  February  'VliX.  asking  my  opinion, 
based  upon  my  experience  in  life  insurance,  as  to  the  etTect  nf 
al(n)hol  upon  tiie  human  system,  is  duly  receivt'tl. 

My  personal  opinion  is  that  every  well  man.  woman,  or  child 
is  better  without  alcohol  in  any  form. 

To  answer  the  one  (|uestion  that  you  ask,  as  to  the  etVect  of 
alcohol  upon  the  length  of  life,  it  is  proved  beyitnd  (juestion 
that  the  habitual,  tiiough  temperate  use  of  alcohol  is  unfavor- 
al)le  to  long  life.  This  question  has  been  carefully  gone  into 
several  times  within  tlie  past   few  years  by  some  of  the  insnr- 


104 


IMIYSIOUKJY   FOR  CHILDREN 


ance  and  meiliciil  jonnuils,  to  which,  if  you  care  to  go  fully  into 
the  question,  I  would  refer  you  for  furtlier  information, 

You/s  very  truly, 

IIenky  Tuck, 

Vice- President. 


J 

\miik 


There  are  in  England  and  Scotland  life  insurance 
conii)anie8  which  separate  their  business  into  two 
sections.  In  one  section  they  insure  the  lives  of 
abstainers,  those  who  do  not  drink  alcoholic  liquors 
at  all.  In  the  other  section  they  insure  the  lives  of 
people  wlio  are  moderate  drinkers.  The  records  of 
these  companies  show  that  the  use  of  alcohol,  even  in 
moderate  amounts,  shortens  life. 

The  appetite  for  alcohol. — It  is  because  the  ai>pe- 
tite  for  alcohol  grows  on  one  that  many  who  begin  as 
moderate  diinkers,  and  intend  to  remain  so,  become 
hopeless  drunkartls.  This  is  the  greatest  danger  of 
moderate  drinking.  With  many  people,  the  small 
quantity  of  alcohol  taken  at  first  causes  a  desire  for 
more  and,  as  the  appetite  increases,  larger  quantities 
are  taken,  until  the  craving  for  alcohol  becomes  so 
strong  that  it  cannot  be  resisted. 

Any  alcoholic  drink  may  cause  this  unnatural  and 
uncontrollable  ap[)etite  for  alcohol. 


DUINKS    WHICH   CONTAIN    AU'OIIOL. 


106 


All  people  ajrree  that  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic 
liquor  results  in  jrreat  injury  and  misery.  In  every 
neiffhborhood  there  are  luen  who  were  once  kind- 
hearted,  noble,  and  prosperous,  but  who  have  become 
wrecks  through  drink,  and  are  so  completely  controlle«l 
by  their  appetite  for  it  that  tliey  will  secure  it  even 
at  the  cost  of  necessary  food  and  ch)thing  for  them- 
selves and  families.  Many,  and  perhaps  all  of  these 
people,  believed  when  they  began  drinking  that  they 
could  control  themselves  and  stop  whenever  they 
wished;  but  no  one  can  tell  in  advance  that  the  api)e- 
tite  for  alco'  ^  will  not,  in  time,  gain  complete  control 
over  him.  (ce  this  is  true,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
right  course  is  not  to  begin  to  drink  alcoholic  liipioi-s. 


We  Iiave  learned  that : 

1.  Ak'oliol  is  made  from  siipir  by  fernKiitation. 

2.  Alcohol  is  not  a  (U'siral)li'  fowl. 

;{.   WIr'ii  alfoiiol  produces  intoxication,  it  nctr.  as  a  iiarcolic  |M)isuii. 

4.  The  reports  of  life  insurance  coinjianies  show  that  people  who  do 
not  drink  alcoholic  liquor  live  longer,  on  the  average,  than  people  who 
do  drink  it. 

!).  Some  i>eople  drink  alcoholic  liquor  lieca use  they  have  false  opinions 
about  a. 

6.  A  great  danger  in  the  moderate  drinking  of  alcoholic  li(juor  is  the 
forming  of  a  iiabit  of  drinking  that  cannot  he  given  u[k 

7.  No  one  can  tell  beforehand  whether  he  will  become  a  slave  to  liquor, 
ami  theref'irc  it  is  better  not  to  begin  to  drink  it. 


III 

iflf 


CHAPTER   IX 


ir 


BREATHING 

The  need  of  oxygen.  -If  you  mix  a  handful  of 
gi'ain  and  a  handful  of  chaff  together  and  put  them 
in  a  diah  before  a  chicken,  the  chicken  will  pick  out 
the  grain,  which  it  does  need,  and  leave  the  chaff, 
^vhich  it  does  not  need. 

In  somewhat  the  same  way  different  organs  of  the 
body  take  what  they  need  out  of  material  which  is 
brought  to  them,  and  do  not  take  what  they  do  not 
need.  For  example,  air  consists  of  gases  mixed  to- 
gether. One  of  these  gases  is  oxygen.  As  we  breathe, 
air  comes  in  thiough  ihe  nose  or  mouth  and  <?oes  tlown 
the  windpipe  into  the  lungs.  While  the  air  is  in  the 
lungs  they  take  from  it  oxygen,  which  we  need,  but, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  leave  the  gases  which  we 
do  not  need. 

If  you  had  a  glass  jar  full  of  oxygen  you  could  not 
see  the  oxygen,  yet  it  could  be  weighed,  and  if  a  rubber 
bag  were  filled  with  oxygen  and  you  were  to  stand  upon 
it,  the  oxygen  would  hold  you  up,  just  as  water  would 
if  the  bag  were  filled  with  water.  We  cannot  live  w  ith- 
out  oxygen  any  more  than  we  can  live  \\ithout  food. 


BKKATHIXJJ 


107 


How  we  breatliCN— riie  nvt  of  breathi  g  consists 
of  two  luirts.  We  breathe  in  and  we  breathe  out. 
When  we  breathe  in  we  are  said  to  inspire,  or  inhale ; 
when  we  breathe  out,  we  are  said  to  expire,  or  exhale. 


THK    LUNGS    OF    A    NEWT. 


Breathing  in  is  called  inspiration,  and  breathing  out 
is  called  expiration. 

If  you  pi-ess  your  hands  firmly  against  the  sides  of 
your  chest,  and  breathe  a  few  times,  as  dee[)ly  as  you 
can,  you  w  ill  see  and  feel  your  hands  moving  as  your 
chest  becomes  larger,  and  then  smaller.  The  changes 
in  the  size  of  the  chest  are  caused  by  muscles.     One 


108 


PIIYSIOLCKiY   FOR  CIIILDREX 


ki- 


rn 


of  these  muscles  is  the  imrtition  between  the  chest  and 
the  abdomen  ;  tlie  others  are  in  tlie  chest  wall.  When 
these  muscles  contract,  the  chest  becomes  larger ;  when 
they  relax,  it  becomes  smaller.  When  the  chest  be- 
comes larger,  it  gives  the  lungs  more  room.  The 
lungs  swell  out  at  once  and  air  comes  in  to  fill  them. 
When  the  chest  becomes  smallar,  it  presses  upon 
the  soft,  elastic  lungs,  and  forces  some  of  the  air 
out. 

A  Himple  lung.— The  lungs  of  animals  are  not 
all  alike.  A  small  animal,  called  the  newt,  has  two 
very  simple  lungs.  Each  lung  consists  of  a  single 
air  sac  which  swells  out  when  air  goes  into  it,  and 
becomes  much  smaller  ^vhen  air  goes  out  of  it. 
However,  the  little  sacs  always  contain  some  air. 
They  are  never  quite  empty. 

On  page  107  we  have  a  picture  of  the  windpipe  and 
lungs  of  a  newt  when  the  lungs  are  full  of  air. 

A  great  number  of  small,  fine,  hair-like  blood  tubes 
are  fitted  nicely  into  the  walls  of  the  air  sacs.  These 
blood  tubes  are  the  lung  capillaries.  You  can  see 
them  sketched  in  the  picture.  There  are  two  things 
for  you  to  see  in  this  picture,— the  air  sacs  and  the 
lung  capillaries.  The  capillaries  hold  blood,  the  sacs 
hold  air. 


i 


BRKATlHNiJ 


109 


What  our  IiiiiflrM  are  like.— We  Imve  two  limgs ; 
one  on  the  right  suie  and  one  on  the  left  side  of  the 
cheat.  The  wiudpij)e  divides  at  its  U)wer  end  into 
two  tubes,  called  the  right  and  the  left  bronchus — 
one  for  each  lung.  Eacii  brt)uchus  sends  out  several 
branches,  called  bronchial  tubes,  which  branch  out 
like  the  limbs  of  a  ti-ee  and  md  in  little  air  sacs. 
There  are  thousands  of  small  air  sacs  in  each  lung, 
and  each  of  these  air  sacs  has  a  network  of  tiny  capil- 
laries lying  in  its  wall.  As  in  a  newt's  lung,  the  capil- 
laries hold  blood,  and  the  air  sacs  ht)ld  air. 

Changes  in  the  blood  in  the  lungs.~The  dark 
blood  flowing  along  in  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs  has 
carbon  dioxide  in  it  that  it  must  get  rid  of.  The  air 
in  the  sac  has  oxygen  in  it  which  it  can  give  up.  So, 
when  the  air  and  the  blood  come  close  to  each  other 
in  the  lungs,  two  things  happen  to  the  blood.  Carbon 
dioxide  goes  out  of  it,  and  oxygen  comes  into  it  and 
turns  it  to  a  bright  red  color.  Like  ships  at  a  dock, 
the  little  red  corpuscles  load  up  with  oxygen  in  the 
lungs.  Then  they  sail  away  in  the  blood  stream  to 
the  left  side  of  the  heart. 

Changes  in  the  air  in  the  lungs. — Changes  also 
take  place  in  the  air  in  the  lungs.  Oxygen  goes  from 
it  into   the  blood   of  the   capillaries,   while   carbon 


no 


PUYSIOLOOy   FOB,  CUlLDHE2i 


dioxide  comes  from  the  blooil  into  the  air.  The  air 
we  bieathe  out  lian  less  oxygen  and  more  carbon 
dioxide  in  it  tlian  the  air  we  breathe  in. 


LUNGS    AND    HEAUT.       PAUT   OF    LUNG   CUT    AWAY    FROM    LEFT    SIDE    TO 
SHOW    IILOOD   TUBES    AND   AIR   TUBF-:. 

How  good  air  is  made  bad. — Now,  the  air  which 
we  breathe  out  has  lost  some  of  its  life-«^iviii<»-  oxvoen 
but  contains  nioi-e  of   the  poisonous  carbon  dioxide, 
wiiich  has  been  brought  to  it  from  all  parts  of  the 


HKKATIIINti 


bcwly  l»v  the  1)1<hm]  in  the  veins.     If  we  breatlie  in  t 
same  air  ai^ain  and  a,*;ain,    it  I(>st>s  still  ni«»i'e   of 
t)XViren  and  takes  U[i  still  more  carixm  dioxide.     K     k 
jierson  breathes  about  eighteen  times  a  minute,  e*    i  v 
breath  taking  oxygen  fi"om  the  air  and  adding  cu;  »on 
dioxide  to  it.     So  you  see  that  the  oxygen  in  a  »<iomi 
full  <»f  jjeople  would  soon  be  used  up,  and  t^  ai' 
would  contain  a  dangerous  amount  of  carbon      oxid« 
unless  fresh  air  wei'e  let  in. 

A  lamp  or  gas  jet  burning  in  a  rcM)m  takes  away 
oxygen  from  the  air  and  adds  carbon  dioxide  to  if 
just  as  you  do  by  breathing. 

A  damj),  mouldy  cellar  may  spoil  the  air  in  a  house. 
The  air  cannot  be  wholesome  when  decaying  fruit  or 
vegetables  are  left  in  the  cellar.  Pipes  connected  with 
cltisets,  sinks,  baths,  or  wash-basins  may  allow  gas  to 
escape  and  make  the  air  of  a  house  poisonous. 

Coal  stoves  give  oflF  much  i>oisonous  gas  which 
should  go  up  the  chimney,  but  if  the  damper  leading 
to  the  chimney  is  closed  and  the  stove  is  left  open, 
much  of  this  gas  finds  its  way  through  the  house. 
Enough  of  it  may  esca[)e  in  a  few  hours  to  cause  the 
death  of  those  who  are  in  the  house. 

The  iiijurious  effects  of  breathing  bad  air. — 
You  cannot  have  good  health  if  you  breathe  bad  air 


112 


PHYSIOLCMJY   FOR  CIIILDKKN 


day  after  day.    Bad  air  affects  the  brain  and  causes 
headache  and  other  uncomfortable  feelings. 

It  affects  the  blootl  most  of  all.  Those  who  spend 
much  time  in  badly  ventilated  rooms  are  always  pale. 
They  have  a  sickly  ai»pearance  because  the  little  re<l 
corpuscles  do  not  get  enough  oxygen.  The  muscles 
become  vveak  owing  to  the  poor  quality  of  the  blood. 
Bad  air,  by  weakening  the  bo<ly,  makes  you  more 
likely  to  take  any  disease  to  which  you  may  he  ex- 
posed.  The  air  from  damp  cellars  and  damp  houses  is 
a  cause  of  bronchitis,  rheumatism,  and  heart  disease. 

Ventilation,— The  rooms  of  a  house  are  usually 
well  ventilated  in  summer  because  the  doors  and  win- 
dows are  kept  open.     The  cellars,  however,  are  often 
neglected,  even  in  warm  weather.   Every  cellar  should 
have  at  least  two  windows,  which  should  be  placed  so 
as  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to  blow  through  the  cellar. 
Houses  are  often  badly  ventilated  in  winter,  for  then 
the  doors  and  windows  are  closed  to  keep  out  the  cold 
air.    It  is  true  that  even  then  some  of  the  foul  air  of  a 
house  finds  its  way  out,  and  some  pure,  fresh  air  finds 
Its  way  in.     This  happens  each  time  a  door  is  oi^ened. 
Unless  the  windows  and  doors  are  very  tight,  foul  air 
will  find  its  way  out  through  cracks  also,  and  fresh  air 
will  come  in  by  the  sr*me  way.     In  rooms  in  which  a 


Bh* 


.<! 


118 


fire  is  burning  there  will  be  another  outward  current 
of  air  through  the  chimney,  while  air  will  come  in 
through  tlie  small  oi)eningM  around  the  windows  and 
doors.  Still,  these  means  are  not  sufficient  to  furnish 
fresh  air  for  the  rooms  of  a  hou.«e  when  the  doors  and 
windows  are  closed. 

In  every  hou^e  there  should  be  some  sjiecial  way 
provided  so  that  a  sufficient  8Ui)i)ly  of  fresh  air  may 
come  into  each  room  and  the  foul  air  may  po  out. 

Thorough  ventilation  of  the  house  is  desirable,  but 
that  alone  will  not  keep  us  in  health.  Every  one 
should  si)end  a  part  of  each  day  out  of  doors.  Fresh 
air  and  sunshine  are  better  than  medicine.  On  cold 
days  put  on  extra  clothing,  but  do  not  let  cold  weather 
keep  you  from  goinjr  out.  Those  who  go  out  every 
day  are  far  less  likel}  t<.  vako  col.l  than  those  who  are 
too  much  in  the  hout-  - 

ini  hf  lungs.  — Alcohol 
'L:i:X^  and  lessens  their 
jdfc  who  drink  alcoholic 
iii^uor  are  more  likely  to  have  consumption  of  the 
lungs  than  those  who  do  not  drink  it.  It  is  well 
known,  too,  that  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  drink- 
ing alcoholic  liquor  are  less  likely  to  recover  from 
pneumonia  than  those  who  do  not  use  it. 


Effect    of    aleoli  .? 

weakens  the  tissues  c: 
power  to  resist  disease. 


the 


114 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOK   CHILDKEX 


Effect  of  tobacco  on  the  throat  and  lungs.— 

Smokers  often  suffer  from  a  constant  irritation  of  the 
throat  and  bronchial  tubes,  and  even  inflammation  of 
the  throat  is  common  among  them. 

Tlie  practice  of  taking  smoke  into  the  lungs  is  always 
harmful.  It  irritates  the  lungs  and  allows  a  larsei" 
amount  of  i)oison  from  the  smoke  to  be  taken  into  the 
b(  kIj. 

Wo  have  learned  that : 

1.  We  l)reathe  air  in  order  to  get  oxysjen  from  it. 

2.  Ill  inspiration  the  chest  increatses  in  size,  and  in  expiration  it  becomes 
sniiiller. 

3.  Wlieii  the  chest  l)ecomes  larirer  the  lungs  swell  ont  and  air  comes  in 
to  fill  them. 

4.  When  tiie  chest  becomes  smaller  it  presses  n[»on  the  lungs  and  forces 
nir  out  of  them. 

5    Tho  newt  has  very  simple  lungs. 

6.  Very  fine  blood  tubes  are  in  the  wails  of  the  newt  s  lungs. 

7.  Our  lungs  contain  thousands  of  air  sacs,  each  one  of  which  is  like  a 
newt's  air  .sac. 

8.  The  iiir  sac  contains  air,  and  tlie  capillaries  in  its  wall  contain  blood. 

9.  0.\ygen  passes  from  the  air  in  the  air  sac  to  the  bloo<l  in  the  cajiil- 
l«rie.s.  and  carbon  dioxide  passes  from  the  blood  to  the  air. 

10.  Red  corpuscles  in  the  blood  load  up  with  oxygen  in  ll:e  lungs  and 
ciiny  it  to  nil  parls  of  the  body. 

11.  Hreathing  bad  air  is  injurious. 

12.  Houses  should  Iw  well  ventilated. 

13.  Alcohol  injures  the  ti.ssues  of  tlie  lungs. 

14.  The  throat  and  lungs  may  be  injured  by  smoking  tobacco. 


CHAPTER  X 


TlIK    SKIX 

What  the  skill  is  like.- Our  botlies  have  a  soft 
covering  of  skin,  which  has  two  i)arts,  an  outer  ami  an 
inner  part.  The  tmter  part  is  called  the  scarf-skin  and 
the  inner  part  the  true  skin. 

Tlie  scarf-skill.— The    scarf-skin   consists  <»f    cells 
arranired  in   several   lavers   one   upon   another.      Of 
course   each    layer   must   be    very  thin,    because  the 
whole    scarf-skin    is    only 
about  as  thick    as  ;    thin 
sheet  of  paper.    The  outer 
layers   are    all    the     time 
weai'inii;    out     and     being 
I'ubbed  oit  and,  while  this 
is  scoins:  on,  new  cells  are 
being  formed  in  the  lowest 
layer.      These    new    cells 
keep     [)ushing     the    cells 
above  them  out  to  the  sur- 
face, to  take  the  place  of  (Mii<rnifif<i.) 
those    that   are   woni    away.     Thus  the  scarf-skin   is 
built  u})  from  below  while  it  is  wearing  away  alxive. 


a,  THL'E   SKIN.       b,  l.AVKUS    OF 
!S(AKF-SKIN. 


116 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOB  CHILDREN 


If  you  will  rub  your  arm  briskly  while  staiitling  in 
the  bright  sunshine,  you  will  see  many  dust-like  specks 
floating  in  the  air.  These  are  wom-out  cells  from  the 
outer  layer  of  the  scarf-skin. 

The  cells  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  scarf-skin  have 
no  feeling,  for  they  contain  no  nerves.  If  you  prick 
the  scarf-skir  with  the  p.int  of  a  needle  you  will  feel 
no  pain.  Moreover,  you  will  see  no  blood,  unless 
the  point  of  the  needle  passes  on  into  the  true  skin,  for 
the  scarf-skin  contains  no  blood  tubes. 

The  coloring  matter  which  gives  us  our  complexions 
lies  in  the  deepest  layer  of  the  scarf-skin. 

If  the  scarf-skin  is  rubbed  or  pressed  day  after  day 
it  will  become  thicker.  For  Jiis  reason  the  skin  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  often 
becomes  quite  thick  and  hard.  This  explains  why 
boys  who  go  barefoot  in  the  summer  can  walk  over 
rough,  and  even  stony  ground  without  hurting  their 
feet. 

The  true  skin.— The  tme  skin  lies  under  the 
scarf-skin.  It  is  full  of  blood  tubes  and  nerves. 
On  page  118  there  is  d  picture  of  a  piece  of  true 
skin.  Its  surface  is  not  smooth,  but  is  raised  at  in- 
tervals into  little  points. 

Most  of  these  points  contain  a  looped  capillary; 


TIIK  SKIN 


117 


some  of  them  contain  a  nerve,  while  others  contain 
both  a  capillary  and  a  nerve.  The  nerves  end  in  little 
knobs,  and  it  is  by  means  of  these  nerve  ends  that  we 
feel  everything  that  touches  us. 

The  true  skin  is  so  sensitive  because  of  its  nmny 
nerves  that  if  the  scarf-skin  which  protects  it  is  re- 
moved, the  uncovered  place  will  smart  with  pain. 
Every  boy  knows  this  who  has  blistered  his  han<ls  and 
then  opened  the  blister,  to  let  the  v.ater  out.  The 
raised  skin  that  was  above  the  water  was  scai-f-skin ; 
that  below  the  water  was  true  skin,  full  of  nerves, 
and  painful  if  touched,  or  even  exj^sed  to  the  air. 

Perspiration.— If  you  run  fast,  or  take  other  active 
exercise  on  a  warm  day,  perepiration,  or  sweat  as  it  is 
also  called,  will  apjiear  on  the  skin.  Perspiration  con- 
sists of  water  in  which  a  very  small  amount  of  common 
salt  and  other  matter  is  dissolved.  It  is  formed  in  the 
tnie  skin  in  what  are  called  sweat-glands. 

Perspiration  will  often  collect  in  drops  on  the  back 
of  your  hands,  or  run  in  little  streams  frv>m  your 
foreiiead.  When  it  is  formed  slowly,  it  doos  not 
collect  in  drops,  but  as  fast  as  it  is  made  it  ])asses 
from  the  body  in  vapor,  which  cannot  be  seen. 
Although  you  may  not  see  it,  pei-spiration  is  formed 
at   all   temperatures   and  at  all   times,  whether  you 


118 


PHYSIOLOGY    ton  CIIILDKKN 


ai"e    taking    exercise,   sitting    j^till,  or   even  lying  in 
bed. 

Sweat-glsiiids.  -  On  page  119  is  a  picture  of  a  small 
piece  of  skill  wliicli  contains  sweat-glands.  The 
lower  part  of  the  gland  is  twisted  into  a  coil,  and 
fi-oiu  the  coil  a  small  tube  passes  through  both  parts 


NERVES    AND    Hl.Oni)    TFHES    IV    TRUE    SKIN. 
(Magnified.) 

of  the  skin  and  opens  on  the  surface  f  the  scarf-skin. 
The  cells  in  the  coiled  part  of  tl  eat-gland  take 

water  and  other  materials  from  tue  capillaries  sur- 
rounding them  and  make  the  perspiration,  which  then 
flows  along  the  tube  and  out  through  the  opening  on  to 
the  surface  of  the  skin. 

If  you  will   look  at  the  skin  on  the  back  of  your 
hand  with  a  strong  magnifying  glass  you  will  find  it 


THE   SKIN 


ll".» 


dotted  all  over  with  tiny  little  holes.  These  holes  an* 
the  openings  of  tlie  pei-spi ration  tubes.  They  are 
called  poi-es,  jind  there  are  more  than  two  million 
of  them   on    the  surface  of  the    l)o(ly. 

Use  of  perHpiratioi:. — Vou 
have  seen  water  sprinkled  on  a 
floor  on  a  hot  day  and  have 
felt  the  air  in  the  room  becom- 
ing cooler  afterwards.  The  air 
became  cooler  because  some  of 
its  heat  was  taken  from  it  and 
used  to  change  the  sprinkled 
water  into  vapor,  or  evaporate 
it.  The  cooling  of  the  body 
by  per8piratit)n  is  caused  in 
the  same  way.  Some  of  the 
body's  heat  is  taken  from  it 
and  used  to  change  the  per- 
8]ii ration  into  vapor. 

When  your  body  is  becoming  too  warm  the  blood 
capillaries  of  the  skin  become  larger,  and  a  greater 
amount  of  blood  than  rsual  flows  into  them.  The 
sweat-glands  then  work  faster,  so  that  a  great  deal 
of  perspiration  is  made,  and,  as  it  evaporates,  the  body 
becomes  cooler. 


SCARF-SKIN. 

a.  S\vout-i;l!inil«.    h.  ITalr  ghnft. 
e.  Oil-gland.  d,  MnsoU'. 

(Magnified.) 


8  'i 


120 


PHYSIOLOGT  FOR  CHILDREN 


Cold  acts  in  a  directly  opposite  way.  When  the 
body  is  cold  the  blood  tubes  of  the  skin  become 
smaller.  They  tlien  allow  less  blood  than  usual  to 
flow  into  them,  and  only  a  little  i>erspiration  is  made. 

Sometimes  when  people  are  very  warm  they  allow 
themselves  to  cool  off  too  quickly.  They  may  go  too 
soon  into  cold  air,  or  may  stand  or  sit  after  violent 
exercise  without  putting  on  extra  clothing.  This  is  a 
very  common  way  of  "catching  cold." 

Thf  nails — The  nails  on  the  upper  sides  of  the 
ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes  do  not  look  very  much 
like  scai-f-skin,  yet  they  are  made  of  scarf-skin  which 
has  become  very  hard,  almost  like  horn.  The  nails 
protect  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes. 

When  the  nails  are  kept  clean  and  neatly  trimmed 
they  are  not  only  useful,  but  are  also  ornamental. 
Biting  the  nails  injures  them ;  they  should  be  cut. 

The  hair.— Hair  does  not  look  at  all  like  skin,  yet 
it  is  made  of  changed  cells  of  scarf-skin.  The  lower 
end,  or  root,  of  each  hair  is  in  the  true  skin,  and  the 
hair  gets  its  nourishment  from  the  blood  in  the  capil- 
laries of  the  tme  skin. 

Near  the  root  of  each  hair  ai-e  glands  which  look 
like  little  bags.  ITiese  are  oil-glands.  They  take 
material    from   the  blood   in   the    blood    tubes 


near 


THE  SKIX 


121 


them,  change  it  into  an  oily  substance  and  pour  it  out 
upon  the  hair  and  skin  to  keep  th'  ;u  soft. 

The  hair  helps  to.  protect  the  head  from  blown  or 
other  injury.  It  also  keeps  the  head  warm  and  serves 
as  an  ornament.  The  hail's  which  grow  upon  the  edge 
of  each  eyelid  are  called  eyelashes.  The  eyelashes 
catch  particles  of  floating  dust,  and  also  act  as  a 
screen  from  the  bright  sunlight.  Thus  in  two  ways 
they  protect  the  eyes. 

The  hair  and  the  scalp  should  be  washed  thoroughly 
at  least  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Begin  by  washing 
with  soap  and  water  that  is  quite  warm,  and  after- 
wards use  cold  water.  If  you  then  dry  your  hair 
thoroughly,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  taking  cold 
even  in  winter  weather. 

Care  of  the  skin.— You  have  already  learned  that 
the  water  of  pei-spiration  passes  off  as  vapor,  but  the 
oil  and  other  matter  cannot  evaporate.  Together 
with  the  worn-out  cells  of  the  scarf-skin,  they  fonn  a 
thin  layer  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin.  Part  of  the 
perspiration  is  aljsorbed  by  our  clothing,  and  for  this 
reason  all  clothing  worn  near  the  skin  should  be  fre- 
quently changed  and  washed. 

If  the  waste  matters  caiTied  out  of  the  body  by  per- 
spiration remain  upon  the  skin  and  clothing,  they  may 


122 


PHYSIOLOGY   Foil  t'lIILDREX 


Hi 


U 


cause  (liHagreeable  (hIoi-s,  ami  interfere  with  the  health 
of  the  skin.  The  skin  and  ck)thin.if  should,  therefore, 
be  kei)t  clean,  for  the  sake  of  our  own  health,  and  also 
for  tlie  comfort  of  others. 

The  batli.— Persons  in  ordinary  health  should  take 
a  bath  at  s.>nie  time  every  day.  The  best  time  is  in 
the  morning  just  after  rising.  Those  who  are  ac- 
customed to  take  a  daily  morning  bath  find  it  so  re- 
freshing that  they  are  uncomfortable  without  it. 

Warm  water  is  more  cleansing  than  cold,  and  soai) 
helps  to  remove  the  oily  matter  which  collects  upon 
the  skin.  In  order,  therefore,  to  keej)  the  body  cle  ii, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  warm  water  and  soap  in  the  bath 
at  least  once  or  twice  a  week. 

A  warm  bath  at  bedtime  is  soothing,  after  a  day  of 
hard  labor  or  excitement.  It  has  a  quieting  eflFect 
upon  the  nerves  and  is  a  valuable  aid  in  producing 
sleep.  But  a  warm  bath  should  not  be  taken  in  the 
moiniug  in  cold  weather  if  you  are  going  out  of  dooi-s 
soon  afterwards,  for  it  expands  the  blood  tubes  of  the 
skin  ;  as  these  blood  tubes  become  larger  more  blood 
than  usual  flows  into  them,  and  with  much  blood 
cooling  rapidly  at  the  surface  of  your  body,  you  are 
likely  to  "  catch  cold." 

If  a  warm  bath  is  taken  in  the  morning,  the  body 


TIIK   SKI.V 


i'>:i 


:/'!-: 


m^4A%. 


*^-'-^- 


should   afteiwjuils  l)e  sprayed  or  MiM>iii?ed  with  cold 
water,  to    lessen    the   risk   of   taking  cold  on    u;oini; 

out. 

Cold  water  is  nuieh  more  bracing  than  warm.  A 
bath  is  said  to  be  cold  when  the  temperature  «»f  the 
water  is  about 
60  degrees  Fall- 
reuheit.  Few 
people  should 
use  water  that  is 
colder  than  this. 

At  first  a  cold 
bath  causes  a 
feeling  of  chilli- 
ness, because  the 
cold  contracts 
the  blood  tubes 
of  the  skin,  and 
more  blood  than 
usual  is  forced  from  the  surface  to  the  interior  of  the 
bodv.  so  that  the  internal  organs  receive  an  unusual 
supply.  But  the  heart  then  works  harder  an<l  drives 
the  blood  back  to  the  surface.  In  this  way  a  feeling 
which  is  called  a  glow  is  produced,  and  the  bath  shouhl 
then  come  tc    an  end.     If  the  body  is  now  rubbed 


A    srRF   BATH. 


124 


PIIV8IOLOGY   FOR  CHILUKEX 


iP.    : 


Avith  a  coaree  towel  until  it  is  tliorousflily  dried,  a 
marked  feeling  of  comfort  will  follow. 

People  who  are  accustomed  to  take  a  cold  bath 
every  morning  seldom  catch  cold. 

SwiiiiiiiiiiK. — -Swimming  is  a  jdeasant  way  of  taking 
a  bath.  No  one  should  remain  in  the  water  more  than 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Five  minutes  are  enough 
for  some  persons.  If  the  glow  which  follows  the  first 
feeling  of  chilliness  is  followed  by  another  chilly  feel- 
ing, the  swimmer  has  l)een  in  the  water  too  long. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  skin.  —  Alcohol,  as  we 
have  seen,  acts  upon  the  nerves  which  control  the  size 
of  the  arteries  of  the  skin  and  causes  these  arteries  to 
become  larger  than  usual.  When  the  effects  of  a  drink 
of  liquor  have  passed  away,  the  arteries  retura  to  their 
former  size ;  but  the  continued  use  of  alcohol  causes 
the  arteries  to  become  permain^utly  enlarged.  The 
reddish  appearance  of  the  faces  of  those  who  drink  a 
good  deal  of  alcohol  is  caused  by  the  '  tra  amount  of 
blood  which  the  enlarged  arteries  of  the  skin  contain. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  heat  of  the  body. — 
When  alcohol  enlarges  the  arteries  of  the  skin  they 
contain  more  blood  than  usual.  This  makes  the  skin 
feel  warmer  for  a  time,  because  the  greater  supply  of 
blood  at  the  surface  warms  the  nerve  endings  in  the 


TIIK  KKIN 


125 


skin.  It  is  this  feelinj?  of  warmth  in  the  skin  that 
deceives  those  \vl>o  take  ak'oholio  li^iior  an«l  «rives  rise 
to  the  false  notion  that  alcohol  makes  the  iKxly  warmer 
on  a  cold  day. 

The  fact  is  that  alcohol  makes  the  Inwly  colder  on  a 
cold  day.  An  nnusnal  amount  «>f  blood  is  brouirht 
to  the  surface  of  the  body  and  is  there  exi)ose«l  t«>  the 
cold.  On  this  account  heat  escapes  from  the  Ijody 
more  rapidly  than  it  would  if  no  alcohol  were  taken. 
The  feeling  of  warmth  that  comes  at  first  is  soon  fol- 
lowed  by  a  temperature  which  is  lower  than  us  lal. 

It  is  well  known  that  Dr.  Nansen,  Lieutenant  Peary, 
and  many  other  arctic  explorers  did  not  drink  alcoholic 
liquor  when  they  were  in  polar  regions.  Yet,  if  alco- 
holic liquor  could  keep  a  man  warm,  they  would  cer- 
tainly have  used  it  in  tho?e  i-egions  where  there  is  little 
to  be  seen  but  ice  and  snow. 

Years  aaro,  when  the  effect  of  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  was  not  so  well  understood  as  it  is  now,  they 
were  thought  to  be  good  for  almost  every  ill  and  every 
kind  of  weather.  On  a  cold  day  alcoholic  liquor  was 
taken  to  keep  one  warm,  and  on  a  hot  day  it  was  taken 
to  keep  one  cool. 

The  following  letters  show  that  one  is  better  off 
without  it  both  in  cold  and  in  hot  climates. 


12(i 


IMIVsIoL(M;Y    for  <  IIILDUKX 


I  * 
I  i  i 


The  fii-st  (.f  thene  is  fi-om  Dr.  Fmlorick  A.  Cook, 
ulio  has  had  ]>ulttr  experiences  both  in  tlie  Aivtic  and 
the  Antarctic  Oceans.  He  was  the  siirijeon  on  the 
steamer  "BeluMca,"  whicli  entered  the  Antarctic  in 
Jamiarv,  18JJS,  to  njake  explorations,  and  was  frozen 
up  in  its  ice  for  thirteen  nu/uihs. 


<!n7  Hush  wick  Avimiiu-. 
Hrooklvx.  >i'.  Y.,  Jan.  s.  litoo. 
My  dfur  Sir, 

I  liavo  (lulayod  uii.sworiiig  your  letter  for  some  time  luraiise 
1  had  intended  taking  up  the  subject  with  a  view  of  writing 
an  abstract  as  to  the  uses  ami  abuses  of  alcoholic  beverages  in 
polar  work  ;  but  I  tiud  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  give  the  imit- 
ter,  at  present,  even  the  few  moments  of  time  which  it  recjuires. 
Without  going  into  a  detailed  account  of  my  experiences, 
the  principal  expeditions  with  which  I  have  been  connected 
have  l)een  two;  om*  where  there  was  no  alcohol  in  use  excjept 
upon  rare  occasions,  and  the  other  where  alcohol  in  the  form  of 
ligiit  wines  was  in  almost  constant  use.     From  what   I   have 
thus  seen  of  tlie  use  of  stimulants,  I  must  hasten  to  say  that 
alcohol  in  every  form  is  decidedly  injurious  to  nu-n  whose  en- 
durance and  strength  are  taxed  to  the  utmost. 

Alcohol,  then,  shoidd  have  no  place  in  the  equipment  of  an 
expedition  to  the  p«)lar  regions  except  as  a  ])art  of  the  medical 
supply,  and  even  for  this  purpose  it  is  seldom  useful. 
Yours  very  sincerely, 

FKEHEHrcK  A.  Cook.  M.J). 


TIIK  SKIX 


I -.'7 


<'AN.\U.\    umn. 

Ottawa.  Ontauio,  Canada, 

November  '^\,  lsy<J. 
Dear  Sir : 

Timber  and  logs  upon  the  Ottawa  Kiver  and  its  tributaries 

are  cut  mainly  at  points  from  150  to  300  miles  north  of  the 

city  of   Ottawa,     The  winters  are  cold,  and    at  times  severe, 

the  thermometer  occasionally,   though   not  often,  reaching  a 

point  about  40°  F.  below  zt-ro.     The  cutting  of  roads,  and  the 

chopping,  hewing  and  handling  of  logs  and  timber  are  heavy 

work,  and  though  the  hours  of  daily  service  for  the  men  may 

be  long,  We  find  that  wholesome  food  to  eat  and  the  universal 

tea  to  drink  are  far  better  fortifiers  against  severe  cold  and 

other  hardships  I'lftn  any  intoxicants  coultl  possibly  be.     Tlie 

men,  when  the  boason's  work  is  over  in  the  ^jiring,  are,  as  a 


128 


PHYSIOLOGY  FOB  CHILDREN 


rule,  in  a  much  liealthier  and  stronger  condition  than  when 
they  began  their  duties  in  the  autumn.  A  proper  discipline 
therefore  demands  that  in  our  own  interest,  as  well  as  for 
the  welfare  of  our  men,  we  prohibit  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
wherever  it  is  possible  for  us  to  do  so. 
Very  truly  yours, 

F.  r.  Broxsov,  Vi(!e-President, 

The  Bronson  Company. 

The  tbini  letter  is  from  General  Francis  V.  Greene, 
who  coinmanded  the  second  Manila  expedition. 

11  liroadway, 
Kew  York,  November  22,  1899. 
Dear  Sir : 

Your  letter  of  November  l?th  is  received,  and  in  reply  I 
beg  to  say  that  the  second  Manila  expedition,  consisting  of 
about  3,500  troops  under  my  command,  sailed  from  San  Fran- 
cisco June  loth  and  arrived  at  Manila  July  17th,  1898.  The 
four  ships  used  as  transports  were  all  passenger  vessels,  and 
contained  the  usual  assortment  of  liquors  for  the  use  of  pas- 
sengers. The  day  before  we  sailed  I  directed  that  all  alcoholic 
liquors  be  taken  out  of  the  ships  and  placed  on  the  dock,  and 
this  was  done.  My  reason  for  this  action  was  that  I  believed 
that  the  men  would  arrive  in  a  tropical  climate  in  a  better 
condition  after  surh  a  long  voyage  through  the  tropics  if  their 
systems  were  entirely  free  from  alcohol,  and  I  think  the  re- 
sult justified  this  belief.  We  landed  immediately  after  arriv- 
ing in  Manila  Bay,  and  for  the  next  three  weeks  were  sub- 
jected to  extraordinary  hardships  in  the  trenches  in  front  of 


THE  SKIN 


129 


Manila.  But  the  sick  list  was  surprisingly  small,  being  less 
than  three  per  cent.,  an<l  considerably  less  than  it  had  been  in 
the  camp  at  San  Francisco,  before  we  sailed. 

It  is  proper  to  state  tluit  there  is  a  divided  opinion  as  to  the 
eifect  of  alcohol  on  the  system  in  the  tropics,  but  my  experi- 
ence in  this  case,  and  what  I  had  previously  seen  in  the  West 
Indies,  confirms  me  in  the  belief  that  the  use  of  alcohol  is 
particularly  injurious  in  the  tropical  climates,  and  the  absentse 
of  it  goes  a  long  way  towards  enabling  the  northern  races  to 
withstand  the  effects  of  such  climates. 

Yours  truly, 

F.  V.  (JREEXE. 

We  have  learned  that : 

1.  The  skill  is  a  covering  whicli  protects  tVie  l)otly. 

2.  The  outer  or  scarf-skin  has  no  hl<KHl  tubes. 

3.  The  scarf-skin  consists  of  layers  of  colls.  The  outer  cells  lui'  con- 
tinually being  rubbed  off,  while  new  ones  are  being  formed  in  the  lowest 
layer. 

4.  The  true  skin  contains  lK)th  nerves  and  blood  t  ubes. 

5.  The  surface  of  the  true  skin  has  many  raised  joints. 

6.  Most  of  these  points  contain  a  capillary,  some  contain  a  nerve,  and 
others  a  capillary  and  a  nerve. 

7.  The  skin  contains  sweat-glands  which  make  perspinition. 

8.  One  use  of  perspiration  is  to  cool  the  body. 

9.  The  nails  and  hair  arc  made  of  changed  cells  of  scarf-skin. 

10.  The  skin  should  be  kei)t  clean. 

11.  We  should  not  take  a  warm  bath  just  before  going  out  into  the  cold. 

12.  A  cold  bath,  followed  by  vigorous  rubbing  with  a  coarse  towel,  im 
proves  the  health. 

13.  Alcohol  enlarges  the  small  arteries  of  the  skin  and  makes  it  red. 
When  these  arteries  contain  more  blood  than  usual,  the  body  loses  too 
much  beat. 


im 


CHAPTER  XI 


TIIK    BKAIX,    SPINAL    (ORI),    AM)    NKKVES 

Tin*  brain   as   the  orgrau  of  the  iiiiiul.^How 

easily  the  angine  runs  aloDg  the  railroad  track  and 
draws  a  long  train.  But  the  engine  with  all  its 
strength  is  useless  without  au  engineer  to  control  it. 
A\'ith  his  hand  on  the  lever  he  can  stop  or  start  the 
engine  and  make  it  go  fast  or  slow  as  he  wishes. 

'J'he  mind  is  like  the  engineer,  for  it  has  "ontrol  of 
the  body.  When  your  mind  decides  to  tuiii  a  leaf 
of  your  book  an  order  is  sent  out  from  your  brain 
al«)ng  certain  nerves  to  the  muscles  of  your  arm  and 
hand.  When  the  order  reaches  the  piojjer  nuiscles 
they  contract,  and  your  arm  and  hand  turn  the  leaf. 
In  the  same  manner  an  order  is  sent  out  from  vour 
brain  when  you  decide  to  walk,  run,  or  move  in  any 
other  way. 

In  addition  to  the  orders  which  go  from  the  brain 
to  muscles,  there  are  messages  which  come  to  the 
bniin  from  the  ends  of  tiie  nerves  in  (he  skin  and 
other  organs  of  the  body.  For  example,  pressure  on 
the  skin  of  your  finger  starts  a  ni^ssage  which  travels 
along  a  nerve  till  it  reaches  the  brain.     It  is  only 


THE   BRAIX,    SPINAL   CORD,    AX  I)    NKKVKS 


131 


when  this  message  reaches  the  brain  that  your  mind 
knows  your  finger  is  touching  something. 

Besides  giving  orders  and  receiving  messages,  your 
mind  can  do  other  and  higher  things.     It  can  reniem- 


THE    HRAIN    AS    SEEN    FROM    AUOVE. 


ber,  it  can  imagine,  it  can  reason,  it  can  love,  it  cm 
feel  happy  or  sad  All  its  powers,  howevei",  act  only 
tlirough  the  brain,  and  for  this  reason  the  biain  is 
called  the  organ  of  the  mind. 

The  appearance  of  the  brain. — The    brain  is  a 
soft  mass,  like  thick  Jelly.     Its  surface  is  folded  so  as 


ill! 


-;•■  f- 


132 


PHYSK)LO(JY    FOR  ClIILUREX 


to  fonn  ridges  with  crooves  between  them.  A  very 
deep  groove  runs  from  the  front  to  the  back  part  of 
the  brain  nnd  nearly  divides  it  into  two  equal  parts. 
Besides  the  large  upper  [)ortion  of  the  brain  shown  in 
the  picture  on  page  131,  there  is  a  small  lower  por- 
tion, which  you  can  see  on  page  1  l^H. 

The  brain  is  well  supplied  with  blood  tubes.  Ar- 
teries pass  through  the  neck  and  bring  blood  to  the 
brain  from  the  heart.  These  arteries  divide  into  a 
great  number  of  smaller  ones  which  distribute  the 
blood  to  all  parts  of  the  brain. 

As  the  brain  is  soft  it  could  be  easily  injured,  so  it 
is  placed,  for  protection,  inside  a  case  of  bone  called 
the  skull. 

The  Hpiiiiil  cord  and  nerves.— The  spinal  cord, 
which  lies  within  the  spinal  column,  is  really  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  brain.  It  is  a  soft,  white  cord  about 
eighteen  inches  long.  Throughout  its  entire  length, 
glistening  silvery  threads,  called  spinal  nerves,  start 
from  it  in  pairs. 

There  are  thirty-one  pair  of  nerves  that  begin  in 
the  spinal  cord.  Each  spinal  nerve  is  made  up  of  fine 
nerve  fibres.  These  nerve  fibres  are  bound  together 
to  form  a  nerve,  Just  as  telegraph  wires  are  bound 
together  to  form  a  large  cable. 


THE   BRAIX,    SPINAL   COUl),    AND   NKUVKS 


i;«$ 


THE   BRAIN,    SPINAL   COUIJ,    ANU    NERVES. 


184 


l'HVSI(>L(KiY    Folt   CIIILDUKX 


The  spinal  nerves  i)ass  out  into  the  body  thioiu'li 
small  holes  in  the  si>inr.  Tiieir  fibres  afterward 
separate  and  end  in  various  j)arts.  Some  end  in 
the  skin,  others  end  in  muscles,  and  others  in  dif- 
ferent internal  orirans. 

Besides  those  that  be<?in  in  the  spinal  cor<l,  there 
are  twelve  pair  of  nerves  that  start  directly  from  the 
brain  and  pass  out  throuarh  little  holes  in  the  skull. 
They  go  to  the  eyes,  eai-s,  mouth,  nose,  and  to  the  skin 
and  muscles  of  the  head  an<l  face.  A  very  important 
pair  iroes  to  the  lieai-t,  kings,  stomach,  and  liver. 

How  the  nerves  do  tlieir  work.— Nerve  fibres 
e.\ten<l  downwards  from  the  brain  into  the  spinal 
cord.  Spinal  nerves  connecting  with  these  extend 
outwards  from  the  cord  to  the  nuiscles  of  the  arms, 
legs,  and  other  j)arts  of  the  body.  These  nerves  carry 
messages  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles,  <lirecting 
them  to  contract.  The  nerves  can  carry  messages,  but 
cannot  start  them.  If  all  the  nerves  of  your  arm  were 
cut  you  could  not  move  the  arm.  for  no  messaires 
could  go  from  the  brain  to  the  nniscles  and  cause 
ihem  to  contract. 

Other  nerves  extending  from  the  brain  to  the  skin 
carry  messages  from  the  skin  to  the  brain  whenever 
anything  touclies  the  skin.     If  all  the  nerves  extend- 


TIIK   KUAIN.    SPINAL   (OUH,    AND    NKHVKS  1;{.") 

mijr  from  your  bniiii  to  one  of  your  liands  wt'iv  cut, 
ymi  could  not  feel  anythin-^  with  that  hau.l,  f«.r  no 
incHsaj^e  could  go  from  it  to  the  brain. 

Messages  carried  by  nerves  travel  very  fast.  It 
takes  only  a  very  small  i)ai-t  of  a  secon<l  for  a  mes- 
sage to  go  from  your  brain  to  your  hand,  ov  from 
your  hi    d  to  your  brain. 


KMi:itTAlXIN<i    VVOItK. 

Health  of  the  brain  aiul  lU'i'ves.  The  nervous 
system  and  the  lest  of  the  body  arf  closely  united. 
The  health  of  the  one  depe'.ids  very  nnich  upon  the 
health  of  the  other.  When  you  are  in  goo<l  health 
your  nerves  will  be  stronger  and  your  brain  will  be 
clearer  than  when  y«»u  are  not  in  good  healtli.  Regu- 
lar meals,  regular  liours  for  work,  or  exercise,  and  lor 


130 


PIIYSIOLOdY   FOR  CIIILDKEN 


rest  are  needed  as  imicli  for  the  brain  and  nerves  as 
for  otlier  parts  of  the  body. 

What  work  dot'H  for  the  bruin.— If  you  should 
keep  your  arm  tied  up  in  a  sling  for  a  long  time  it 
would  become  weak  and  wouhl  grow  very  slowly. 
Muscular  work  makes  the  muscles  grow  and  become 
stronger,  and  brain  work  makes  the  brain  grow  and 
become  stronger.  When  you  study  well  you  are  not 
only  getting  knowledge,  but  you  are  at  the  sai  .f^  time 
gaining  greater  power  of  mind.  For  this  reason  good 
work  at  school  will  make  you  able  to  use  your  brain 
well  after  you  leave  school. 

Nothing  can  be  better  for  children  than  to  have 
some  entertaining  work  in  addition  to  their  games  for 
leisure  hours.  Anything  that  one  takes  an  interest  in 
will  furnish  pleasure  and  l)e  the  means  of  gaining 
greater  2)ower  of  mind. 

Sleep — Sound  sleep  is  necessary  for  the  brain. 
During  sleej)  the  brain  an«l  nerves  rest,  and  there  is 
time  then  to  repair  \vhat  was  worn  out  during  the 
day,  and  also  to  lay  ui)  a  store  of  energy  for  the  next 
uay.  You  shouM  take  care  ^o  get  plenty  of  sleep  if 
you  Avish  to  grow  and  be  strong.  A  child  reipires 
more  sleep  than  grown  peojile  because  of  his  rapid 
growth.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  regular  time  for 


TIIK   BKAIV,    SPINAL   COUI>,    AND   NERVES 


137 


goluf'  to  bed,  aiul  you  will  sleep  more  soundly  if  you 
spend  part  of  eaclj  day  in  the  open  air. 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  brain  and  nerves. — 

The  first  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  brain  is  to  increase 
the  amount  of  blood  fiowins;  throu<'h  it.  This  un- 
usual  amount  of  blood  in  the  brain  produces  a  state  of 
excitement,  and  while  it  lasts  the  mind  works  rapidly 
and  easily.  For  this  reason  many  are  deceived  and 
led  to  believe  that  alcohol  makes  them  able  to  think 
better  and  more  quickly. 

But  this  early  state  of  excitement  rapidly  passes 
away,  for  some  of  the  alcohol  that  is  in  the  blood 
soon  reaches  the  brain  and  numbs  the  delicate  brain 
cells.  As  a  result,  the  brain  then  has  less  power  to 
work  than  usual.  Careful  experiments  have  been 
made  which  prove  this. 

The  condition  of  intoxication  shows  very  plainly 
that  alcohol  injures  the  brain  and  nerves.  AVheii  a 
man  is  intoxicated  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  do  any 
mental  work  well,  and  his  nerves  lose  control  over  the 
muscles,  so  that  he  can  hardly  talk,  and  can  only  stag- 
ger when  he  tries  to  walk. 

A  large  amount  of  alcohol  will  paralyze  the  brain 
and  nerves  and  produce  sleep.  In  this  condition  the 
brain  loses  all  power  to  send  out  messages  to  the  vol- 


I 


138 


iMiYsKn.otiY   i(»i:  (  iiii.iii;i:.N 


liifl 


niitarv  inuscles,  ami  also  iniifli  of  its  power  t<»  ivreivf 
iiu'ssai^es  from  different  parts  ot"  the  IxmIv. 

The  loutr-fontiiiue*!  use  ot"  a'cohol  causes  iu  luauv 
jiersons  a  terrihle  diseare  of  the  l»rain  cells  aud  nerves, 
which  is  called  delirium  tremens. 

Tobacco.— When  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  j>Iant 
arc^  dried  they  are  used  for  smokin;/,  for  ehewini:,  <>r 
for  makiui^  snuff. 

Tobacco  leaves  coutain  a  colorless,  oily  li<juid  which 
is  called  nicotine.  It  lias  a  hot,  burning  taste,  an<l  a 
disagreeable  smell.  It  is  a  powerful  i)oison  :;nd  is 
specially  harmful  to  the  nerves.  Some  nicotine  is 
taken  into  the  system  whenever  tobacco  is  smoked, 
chewed,  or  used  as  snuff. 

The  uncomfoitable  effects  that  are  experienced 
when  one  is  learning  to  smoke  or  chew  are  due  to 
j)oisoning  by  nicotine,  Faintness,  dizziness,  nausea, 
extreme  weakness,  and  vomiting  are  some  of  the  most 
usual  of  these  effects.  The  skin  also  become*;  pale, 
moist,  and  cold,  and  the  pulse  exceedingly  feeble. 

After  a  time  the  tissues  of  the  body  may  l)ec»)me  so 
accustomed  to  tiiis])oison  thatajierson  will  feel  scarcely 
any  inconvenience  from  it,  although  the  tissues  them- 
selves may  be  seriously  injured  })y  it. 

All  agree  that  the  use  of  tobacco  is  injurious  to 


ii 


TIIK    HUAIN.    SPINAL   <'(H:i).    AM)    NKUVKS 


|-?'.« 


those  wlio  are  still  j^rowiiifj^.  In  vi\\\\  lilV  tin*  ti>'Siu'-i 
of  tilt*  IkkIv,  inu\  t's|MH*iully  tlius««  ol'  the  iicivnis 
system,  aiv  ttMnU'i'  ami  liav»*  less  i)(»\ver  to  r»'s:st  tlu' 
lianiit'ul  iiiflneiice  of  nicotine. 

C'iirarette  smoking  is  tlie  most  harmful  of  all  ways 
in  whifli  tohaeeo  is  UvSe«l,  l)eeause  it   teaelies  the  use 
of  tobacco  to  the  y<»un<r.     Since  each  cigarette  is  small 
it    contains   only   a  small   amount  of   nicotine.      Kor 
this  reason  the  beginner  suffers  less  after  smokiiiLr  a 
cigarette  than   after  smoking  a  pipe  or  cigar.      Yet, 
one  of  the  chief  dangers  of  the  cigarette  lies  in  the 
verv  fact  that  it  is  small,  for  this  is  what  makes  it 
easy  for  younir  pei-sons  to  beirin  the  habit  of  smoking. 
In   a   short   time  one  cigarette  <loes  n«)t  satisfy  the 
sujoker,  and  he  soon  learns  to  smoke  a  large  number, 
so  that  a  dangerous  amount  of  nicotine  is  taken  into 
the  body  each  day.      Again,  the  amount  of  nicotine 
that  is  taken  into  the  body  depends  upon  the  amount 
of    surface  that    the    snioke   coniea   in   contact    with. 
Ci'i-arette  smokers,  as  a  rule,  inhale  the  smoke,  so  that 
it   comes   in   contact   with    the  nnmth,  throat,  and  the 
larger  bronchial  tubes.     On  account  of  the  increased 
surface  thus  expo8e<l  to  the  smoke,  one  who  smokes 
ciirarettes  and    inhales  absorbs  a  greater  amount  of 
nicotine  than  one  who  smokes  a  pipe  or  cigar. 


i 


140 


IMIYSloLOtJY    lOi:   <  IIILDIJKV 


NurcotlcM. — Dniiu's  which  are  ustnl  to  nlV^t'  pain 
or  to  produce  sleep  are  soinetiiiies  taken  l»y  pernoiis 
who  do  not  understand  the  danj^ers  which  attend  their 
une.  Sucli  di'uirs,  as  opium,  huidanuni,  niorpliine, 
chloral  and  cocaine,  are  called  narcotic  poisons  be- 
cause they  dea»leii  the  nerves.  They  should  l)e  used 
only  when  they  are  prescribed  by  a  physician,  for  an 
over-dose  of  any  of  them  will  destroy  life.  Besides 
this,  they  can  create  a  strong  desire  for  more,  just  as 
alcohol  can,  and  when  the  habit  of  using  them  is 
formed  it  is  •,  ery  difficult  to  give  them  up. 

We  have  learned  that : 

1.  Tlie  brain  is  liie  organ  of  the  mind. 

2.  Tlie  bruin  is  sdft  and  is  protfttt'd  by  tlio  siiull. 

3.  The  surface  of  the  brain  is  fohled  so  a^s  to  fornj  ridgos  and  grooves. 

4.  The  spinal  cord  is  a  continuation  of  tlic  brain. 

5.  Nerves  extend  from  the  spinal  cord  and  the  brain  to  all  parts  i>f  the 
brdy. 

G.  Some  nerves  carry  messages  from  tiic  binin  to  muM'les  and  cau^e 
tliem  to  contract. 

7.  Other  nerves  carry  messages  from  the  organs  of  the  body  to  tiie 
brain. 

8.  Sleep  is  necessary  for  the  brain  and  nerves. 

9.  PIxercisiiig  the  brain  strengthens  its  powers. 

10.  Alcohol  injures  t!i('  cells  of  the  brain  and  nerves. 

11.  Nicotine  is  a  jMiwerful  [loison  wiiich  injures  'lie  nerves. 

12.  The  use  of  tobacco  hinders  growth. 

13.  Narcotic  drugs  '^hould  be  used  only  when  ordered  by  a  physician. 


mr 


CIIAPTKU    \II 


THE    KIVK    •il'KflAI.    SKNSKS 

How  tlu*  brain  K«'tH  iiit'oriiiatioii.  -Imairino  a 
boy  foiiHiie<l  iu  a  i<M»m  so  tliat  he  lias  no  way  of 
knowiiii,'  what  takes  place  outside,  *'Xt'e]»t  by  means  of 
a  telephone.  ThoU}j:h  he  is  eoini)letely  shut  in,  he  can 
vet  receive  messages  an<l  get  information  from  the 
outside  world. 

Your  brain,  which  ia  the  organ  of  the  mind,  is  shut  in 
like  the  boy;  but  nerves,  like  teleidione  wires,  extend 
from  the  brain  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  ends  of 
some  of  these  nerves  lie  just  umler  the  scai-f-skin,  the 
ends  of  some  are  in  the  tongue,  some  are  in  the  nose, 
some  in  the  eyes,  some  in  the  ears.  When  anything  from 
tic  outside  world  acts  upon  these  nerves  they  carry 
messaires  to  the  brain;  so  y(m  see  that  although  the 
brain  is  shut  within  the  skull,  yet,  through  its  nerve 
telephones,  it  receives  messages  from  the  world  outside 
the  body.  There  are  five  different  sets  of  nerve  tele- 
phones over  which  messages  thus  come  to  the  brain. 
We  call  them  the  five  special  senses, — touch,  taste, 
smell,  sight  and  hearing. 

Sometimes  a  telephone  wire  breaks,  or  is  otherwise 


■^ 


■ST 


■n 


142 


I'UYSIOLOOY    FOIJ  CIIILDKEX 


injured,  and  then  no  messages  can  conie  over  ir.  It 
sometimes  liappens  also  that  a  nerve  leading  from  s(une 
organ  of  the  body  to  the  brain  is  injured  s<.  that  it  will 
n..t  carry  any  message  to  the  brain.  It  may  be  that 
the  nerves  which  caiTy  messages  from  the  eye?s  to  tlie 
brain  become  unable  to  do  their  work.  Then  we  are 
blind  and  through  our  eyes  we  can  get  no  idea  of  the 
color  and  appearance  of  the  birds,  or  flowers,  «»r  count- 
less things  that  others  see. 

The  sense  of  touch.— It  is  easy,  ^\  ith  your  eyes 
ch)sed,  to  tell  the  difference  }>etween  an  apple  .-mil  a 
peach  if  you  touch  them.  They  do  not  feel  alike. 
When  you  feel  anything  you  can  tell  whethei-  it  is  hot 
or  c<dd,  smooth  or  rough.  You  can  learn  also  some- 
thing  about  its  size  and  shape. 

Nerves  extend  from  tlie  brain  to  the  skin.  When 
anything  touches  the  skin,  these  neives  carry-  messages 
at  once  to  the  brain  and  we  then  get  iiiformatiim 
about  what  we  are  touching.  It  is  by  means  <^f  the 
brain  and  the  nerves  of  touch  that  we  feel.  In  the 
skin  of  some  ])arts  of  the  body  there  are  more  nerves 
than  in  the  skin  of  other  p.-.rts.  There  are  many  nerves 
in  the  skin  on  the  tii)s  of  the  fingers,  while  there  are 
not  s(.  many  in  the  skin  on  the  back  of  the  hand.  We 
fan  feel  best  with  those  j)arts  that  have  most  nerves. 


TIIK   FIVE   SPKCIAL   SKNSKS 


14:5 


THOMAS    STRINGER    A\D    HIS   TK\rH?:i!.    MISS   roXLEY. 

Tlie  sense  of  touch  can  be  edncatetl  so  as  to  become 
very  keen.  In  many  occupations  it  is  a  irreat  help. 
Watrh  your  mother,  or  the  tailor,  examine  cloth  by 
feelimr  it.  The  j^rocer  tests  flour  or  meal  by  rubbinLf 
it  L'entlv  between  his  thumb  and  fin«rcrs,  and  the  car- 


144 


PHYSIOLOGY    F(»R   CIIILDIJEN 


it 


penter  feels  tlie  edge  of  his  chisel  or  i)laue  to  find 
out  if  it  is  shari). 

Did  you  ever  see  blind  persons  read  with  their 
fingers  ?  Their  books  are  not  like  yours.  Their  letters 
are  not  made  with  ink,  but  are  made  by  raising  the 
paper  into  little  points.  By  passing  their  fingers  over 
these  raised  letters  the  blind  are  able  to  read  almost  as 
rapidly  as  you  can.  The  blind  use  their  fingers  so 
much  that  they  are  able,  by  feeling,  to  learn  a  great 
deal  that  we  learn  by  sight. 

For  those  who  are  without  both  sight  and  hearing, 
the  sense  of  touch  is  by  {ik  le  most  important  way 
in  which  messages  from  t  side  world  come  to  the 

mind.     In  these  days  it  . .       nderful  how  much  may 
be  accomplished  by  one  who  can  neither  see  nor  hear. 
The  case  of  Thomas  Stringer  is  a  remarkable  illus- 
tration of  this.     Thomas  became  blind  and  deaf  as  a 
result  of  illness,  when  he  was  three  years  of  ao-e. 

in  April,  1890,  when  he  was  four  years  and  nine 
months  old,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Kindergarten  for 
tht?  Blind  in  Boston.  With  much  patience  he  was 
taught  at  last  to  know  letters  and  words  as  his  teacher 
spelled  them  in  his  hand  with  her  fingers,  and  also 
to  talk  by  making  letters  and  words  with  his  own 
fingers.     Later  he  learned  to  write,  and  to  read  the 


THE  FIVE  SPECIAL   SENSES 


145 


raised  print  in  which  books  for  the  blind  are  printe«l. 
His  studies  in  the  primary  department  connected  with 
the   kindergarten  inchided  hmguage,  aritlimetic,  his- 
tory,  geography,  physiology,  science,  and  manual  train- 
ing.    Wlien  he  was  thii-teen  years  of  age  he  entered 
the  sixth  grade  of  the  Lowell  Public  (Jrannnar  School 
of   Boston.     His  teacher  who  was  with   him  in  the 
kindergarten  went  with  him  to  the  grannnar  school 
to   aid   him   in   his   studies.      The   principal   of  the 
Lowell  School,  Mr.  E.  P.  Sherburne,  writes  of  Thomas: 
He  had  no  trouble  in  maintaining  an  average  standing 
in  the  class,  or  grade,  to  which  he  belonged.      He 
entered  the  ninth  grade  in  September  (1902),  and 
graduated  in  the  following  June  with  his  classmates 
who  could  see  and  hear. 

The  sense  of  taste. — ^The  nerves  by  which  we 
taste  end  in  a  soft  membrane  which  covei-s  the  tongue 
and  some  other  parts  at  the  back  of  the  mouth.  This 
membrane  is  very  much  like  the  skin,  and  has  in  it 
little  raised  places,  in  which  these  nerves  end.  If  you 
put  a  lump  of  sugar  into  your  moutii  the  nerves  of 
taste  carry  messages  to  the  brain,  which  tell  you  that 
the  sugar  is  sweet.  It  is  by  means  of  the  brain  and 
these  nerves  that  we  taste. 

The  sense  of  taste  can  be  educated.     Many  people 

10 


146 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOP   ('iriLDK?:N 


M:i  i 


Avho  dislike  bananas  and  tomato  's  when  they  first 
taste  them  learn  afterwards  to  like  them  very  much. 
Children  may  dislike  the  taste  of  some  article  of  food 
that  is  useful.  By  eating  a  little  of  it  at  a  time  one 
may  learn  to  like  it ;  and  it  is  well  to  learn  to  like 
different  things,  for  variety  of  food  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  body  strong  and  healthy. 

The  sense  of  taste  gives  us  pleasure.  Children 
usually  like  sweet  things,  and  eveiy  one  enjoys  the 
flavor  of  delicious  fruits  and  well-cooked  meals.  In- 
valids, and  othei-s  whose  appetite  for  food  is  poor,  are 
often  induced  to  eat  freely  when  food  that  is  appetiz- 
ing is  offered  to  them,  but  will  turn  in  disgust  from 
food  that  does  not  please  their  taste. 

The  sense  of  smell.— The  sense  of  smell  is  of  value 
to  us  chiefly  in  two  ^vays.  It  is  a  source  of  pleasure. 
The  scent  of  many  flowers  is  delightful,  and  the  smell 
of  many  foods  increases  the  pleasure  of  eating.  The 
sense  of  smell  also  warns  us  against  danger.  Foul  air 
and  decayed  matter  often  tell  us  of  their  presence 
bv  their  od(  )r. 

The  fine  fibres  of  the  nerves  of  smell  are  spread  out 
in  the  lining  of  the  upper  i)art  of  the  nose.  When  air 
containing  an  odor  touches  the  ends  of  these  fibres 
they  carry  messages  through  the  nerves  of  smell  to  the 


TIIK   FIVE   SPECIAL   SENSES 


147 


brain,  aud  we  know  then  what  kind  <>t*  odor  we  are 
smellinjj^.  It  is  by  means  of  the  brain  and  these  nerves 
that  we  smell. 

When  oidy  a  small  amonnt  of  o<h»r  is  in  the  air  we 
iret  a  faint  smell.     If  we  wish  to  snit'Il  a  faint  ixlor 


THE    NKIiVKS   OF    SMII.r,. 


distinctly  we  sniff,  ami  so  eanse  the  air  to  ])ass  hiixher 
into  the  nose  and  make  a  stronger  impression  on  the 
nerves  of  smell. 

When  w'e  smell  a  strong  odor,  such  as  that  of  harts- 
I'lorn,  the  power  to  smell  faint  odors  is  greatly  lessened 
foi-  a  time. 


148 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREX 


m 


Every  one  should  be  careful  not  to  give  discomfort 
to  others  by  such  ■•  jpleasant  odoi*8  as  are  caused  by 
eating  onions,  using  tobacco  or  liquor,  and  by  not 
keeping  the  body  and  clothing  clean. 

The  sense  of  hearing.— The  organ  of  hearing  is 
tlie  ear.  The  part  of  it  which  you  can  see  is  called 
the  external  ear,  am!  is  made  of  cartilage  covered  with 
skill.  The  external  ear  is  of  some  use  in  collecting 
sound.  You  often  see  a  per?!on  who  does  not  hear 
well  put  a  hand  behind  his  ear  to  aid  in  collectino- 
sound.  Some  animals,  such  as  horses  and  rabbits, 
move  their  external  ears  in  order  to  catch  sounds 
better  and  to  learn  the  direction  from  which  they 
come. 

The  sounds  pass  fi'om  the  external  ear  through  a 
little  tube,  about  an  inch  long,  into  the  head.  At  the 
inner  end  of  this  tube  there  is  a  thin  curtain  which 
separates  the  external  ear  from  the  middle  ear.  This 
cui-tain  is  sometimes  called  the  drum,  but  it  should  be 
called  the  drum  membrane. 

The  middle  ear  is  the  drum.  It  is  a  small  cavity 
in  one  of  the  skull  bones.  In  it  there  are  three  small 
connecting  bones.  The  first  of  these  is  fastened  to 
the  drum  membrane  at  the  outer  end  of  the  middle 
ear,  and  the  third  is  fastened  to  a  membrane  at  the 


THE   FIVK   SPKCIAL   SKXSES 


149 


inner  end  of  the  middle  ear.  The  middle  ear  reciuires 
air.  This  is  sui»plied  it  through  a  little  tube  which 
connects  with  the  back  part  of  the  mouth. 

Just  beyond  the  middle  ear  the  skull  bone  is  hol- 
lowed out  into  a  little  chamber,  called  the  internal  ear. 
It  is  irregular  in  shape,  and  is  filled  with  a  watery 
fluid.     The  ends  of  the  nerves  of  hearing  float  in  this 

fluid. 

How  we  hear. — If  you  throw  a  stone  into  water 
little  waves  will  form  on  the  surface.  If  the  surface  is 
smooth  you  will  see  these  waves  moving  outward  in 
little  circles.  AVhenever  a  bell  or  anything  capable 
of  making  a  sound  is  struck,  similar  waves  are  made 
in  the  air,  these  waves  move  outward  in  circles,  and, 
if  they  strike  against  your  ears,  cause  you  to  hear. 

You  cannot  see  these  sound  waves  because  you  can- 
not see  air.  When  they  reach  the  ear  they  travel  in- 
ward through  the  tube  of  the  external  ear,  beat  against 
the  drum  membrane  and  make  it  quiver,  or  vibrate. 
The  vibration  of  the  drum  membrane  sets  the  small 
bones  of  the  middle  ear  in  motion,  and  this  causes  the 
membrane  at  the  inner  end  of  the  middle  ear  to  vibrate. 
As  this  second  membrane  vibrates  it  sets  the  fluid  of 
the  internal  ear  in  motion.  The  waves  of  the  fluid 
then  act  upon  the  ends  of  the  nerves  of  hearing  and 


m 


i.')<» 


I*IIYSl()L(MiY    FOR   iHILDIJKX 


li 


m 


cause  messages  to  travel  by  these  nerves  to  the  brain. 
^^  hen  any  messaire  leaehes  the  brain  over  tliese  nerves 
we  say  tliat  we  hear. 

I  Mt'M  of  tln'  si'iiMO  ol'lioarliis.— The  sense  of  liear- 
ing  warns  us  of  coming  danger.     Tlie  Indian  puts  li_s 


sKciiox  OF  i:.\n. 


\ 


ear  to  the  ground  to  liear  if  an  enemy  is  ai>proaclnng. 
The  sound  of  a  bell  <.r  the  rumble  of  wheels  tells 
us  of  the  ccmiing  of  a  street  car  or  wagon.  Because 
they  cannot  heai-  such  warning  sounds,  deaf  peojde 
are  in  constant  danger  in  the  streets  of  a  crowded 
citv. 

The  sense  of  hearing  gives  us  a  great  deal  of  pleas- 
ure.     There  rn-e  very  few  people  who  do  not  enjoy 


'J 


TIIK   KIVK   SPKCIAL  SENSES 


i:)i 


some  kind  of  inusie,  or  the  pleasing  voice  of  one  wlio 
reads  or  speaks  well. 

It  is  easy  to  shut  our  eyes  if  we  do  not  like  wha*^  is 
before  them,  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  elose  our  ears. 
Every  one  shouhl,  therefore,  speak  in  a  pleasing  tone  <»f 
voice,  and  should  be  careful  not  to  make  noises  that 
are  unnecessary  and  annoying.  Many  people  are  dis- 
turbed by  the  noises  that  <»tlier3  make  thoughtlessly, 
both  in  the  house  and  in  the  street. 

Care  of  the  ears. — The  best  way  to  take  care  of 
the  ears  is  to  leave  them  alone.  They  are  delicate 
organs  and  can  easily  be  injured.  Never  put  any- 
thing into  the  ears.  They  should  never  be  pulle«l 
violently,  either  in  play  or  for  punishment.  A  blow 
on  the  ear  may  break  the  thin  drum  membrane  and 
cause  dullness  of  hearing  or  even  total  deafness. 

A  "  cold  in  the  head  "  is  a  frequent  cause  of  deaf- 
ness. AVlienever  there  is  deafness  from  any  cause  a 
physician  should  be  consulted  without  delay. 

The  sense  of  hearing  can  be  wonderfully  trained. 
The  leader  of  a  band  can  often  tell  what  instnnnent 
among  fifty  is  half  a  tone  out  of  tune,  or  a  (piarter  of 
a  beat  out  of  time.  A  railway  company  may  have 
hundreds  of  engines,  but  the  agent  at  a  station  often 
knows,  by  its  whistle,  which  engine  is  coming. 


i 


152 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


In  the  schoolroom  you  should  learn  to  do  two 
things, — to  attend  to  some  of  the  sounds  you  hear,  and 
to  pay  no  attention  to  others.  Practice  will  make  you 
so  perfect  that  you  will  hear  only  what  you  ought  to 
hear.  While  other  pupils  are  reciting  only  a  few  feet 
from  you,  you  will  be  able  to  study  your  historj^  or 
geograi)hy  as  well  as  if  you  were  the  only  one  in  the 
room. 

The  sense  of  sight.— Sight  is  a  precious  gift. 
More  pleasi'.re  and  more  information  about  things 
around  us  come  to  us  through  the  sense  of  sight  than 
through  any  of  the  other  senses.  How  awkward  and 
difficult  it  would  be  to  travel  or  to  do  our  work  if  we 
could  not  see ! 

What  the  eye  is  like.— The  eye  is  nearly  round 
like  a  ball,  and  for  this  reason  is  sometimes  called  an 
eyeball.  It  has  an  outer  coat  which  con8i>t8  of  two 
])arts.  There  is  a  clear,  glassy,  circular  pai t  in  f ront, 
which  is  the  window  of  the  eye,  and  there  is  a  white 
part  which  covers  the  rest  of  the  eye.  Some  of  this 
white  i^art  can  be  seen,  but  most  of  it  cannot.  Both 
parts  of  the  outer  coat  are  tough  and  strong  so  as  to 
support  the  delicate  parts  inside. 

Like  all  other  parts   of   the   body  the   eye  needs 
blood  to  nourish  it.     Just  inside  the  white  part  is  a 


THE   FIVE  SPECIAL  SENSES 


153 


network  of  arteries,  capillaries  and  veins.    This  net- 
work forms  the  second,  or  middle  coat  of  the  eye. 

It  would  not  be  well  for  the  eye  if  too  much  liirht 
were  allowed  to  come  into  it  at  one  time.     When  too 
much  sunlight  conies  in  through  our  windows  we  close 
the  curtains.     Just  inside  the  window  of  the  eye  is  a 
curtain.    It  is  called  the  iris.     The  word  iris  in  an- 
other language  means  rainbow.     It  is  the  colored  part 
of  the  eye  and  consists   of  a  circular  curtain  with  a 
small  hole,  called  the  pupil,  in  the  centre.     When  the 
light  is  too  strong  the  pupil  becomes  smaller  so  as  not 
to  admit  too  much  light.     When,  on  the  other  hauil, 
the  light   is   dim,  the  pupil  becomes  larger  in  onler 
to  admit  more  light. 

You  may  have  seen  boys  use  a  lens  to  collect  the 
rays  of  heat  from  the  sun  and  set  fire  to  paper  or 
wood.  Just  behind  the  iris  is  a  lens  in  the  eye  which 
looks  like  glass.  It  gathers  together  the  rays  of  light 
which  enter  the  eye,  and  causes  them  to  make  a  clear 
image  on  the  back  of  the  eye. 

The  lens  divides  the  inside  of  the  eyeball  into  two 
parts.  The  part  in  front  of  the  lens  is  smaller  than  the 
part  behind  the  lens  and  is  filled  with  a  watery  fluid. 
The  part  behind  the  lens  is  filled  with  a  thicker, 
glassy  fluid. 


,'A 


UA 


PIIYSIOLOUY    FOL    (IIILIMIKN 


The  Tier\»*M  of  siglit  enter  the  eyes  ai  the  '  uk. 
The  fine  fibren  of  these  nerven  ar<  hj.i^'.hI  o  it  in  lin 
hiyer  oil  the  inner  surface  of  th  -ectui<l  ^at  o'  i  a-li 
eye,  and  tlius  form  tlie  fliinl  .oat. 


T^    OK   THE    EVE. 


Wlienev.  r  yo.;         i         an  object  and  see  it  clearly, 
it    ^  l)e<-au«-  liurljt  he  olgect  has  entered  the  eye 

a    I  m.'i      a    icture  <         is  third  coat.     It  is  the  pic- 
tii  '^  that     i  the  n- .  ves  of  sight  to  carry  messages 

i>      lu    bmiii        aicli  tell  us  what  Me  are  lookinir  at. 


Tin;  I  ivi:  >i'i;(  I  \i,  si;\    '  s 


It  is  1>\  ill. ■■Ill-  '»f  tlic  ln-jiiii  ail''  '  ':••  \u-  cs  itf  si'j-l  ,  i.  at 

\Vt'   StM'. 

'lilt-  N('li<l-     H    like  fol«liii         •<.  W  It    i  iIh-n  miv 

cios^Mi  licy  I      u'ct  tlie  t'y«'l>all  I'-m  'Mrv. 


THE    MrsCI.KS   OK   THl':    EYK 


The  eyelashes,  too,  help  to  i)r»»tect 
luiu-h  liirht,  and  also  from  dust  aiK 
jec'ts  iloatinuj  in  the  air,  when  the  eye.  u 

At  the  outer,  upper  corner  of  eacli  v        s  ■< 
gland  in  which  a  watery  fluid,  called  tears,  is   made. 
Generally  this  gland  makes  only  a  small  amount  of 
flui<l,  Imt  wlu'U  you  cry  the  gland  works  rapidly  and 
tears  are  made  in  greater  (piantity.     The  chief  use  of 


156 


PHYSIOLOGY'   FOR  CHILDREN 


!i:t 


tears  is  to  keep  tlie  eyeball  moist.  Each  time  you 
wink,  the  eyelid  moistens  the  eyeball  with  teal's,  just 
as  you  may  moisten  a  piece  of  glass  with  a  damp 
sponge.  Tears  also  wash  away  particles  of  .last  that 
light  upon  the  eye. 

We  can  move  our  eyeballs.  Muscles,  as  you  see  in 
the  picture  on  page  155,  are  fastened  to  the  sides  of 
the  eyeballs.  When  one  of  these  muscles  contracts, 
it  moves  the  eye.  If  from  any  cause  the  muscles 
on  one  side  become  weak,  the  eye  may  be  turned  too 
far  toward  the  other  side.  This  condition  is  called 
squint  eye. 

Care  of  the  eyes. — The  eyes  may  easily  be  in- 
jured by  reading  fine  print  in  a  poor  light,  or  by  read- 
ing in  a  light  that  is  too  bright. 

The  direction  in  which  the  light  comes  when  you 
are  reading  is  important.  If  possible  do  not  read  or 
write  while  facing  the  light,  but  sit  so  that  the  light 
may  fall  upon  the  page  from  your  left. 

Reading  in  bed  is  a  bad  practice.  The  eyes  are 
likely  to  be  strained  because  of  the  position  of  the 
book  and  the  direction  from  which  the  light  comes  to 
the  eye.  You  should  stop  reading  the  moment  your 
eyes  smart  or  bum  or  feel  as  if  fine  sand  were  in  them. 
When  reading  you  should  stop  at  intervals  and  look 


THE   FIVE  SPECIAL   SENSES 


157 


away  at  something  in  the  distance  for  a  few  minutes. 
Looking  constantly  at  near  objects  tires  the  eyes,  while 
looking  at  distant  objects  rests  them. 

Effect  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  on  the  special 
8eiisc8. — The  harmful  effect  of  alcohol  and  tol)acco 
ui)on  the  brain  and  nerves  must  injure  the  special 
senses.  Experiments  have  shown  that  even  small 
amounts  of  alcohol  may  injure  the  sense  of  sight,  and 
also  the  sense  of  touch. 

The  use  of  tobacco  sometimes  causes  a  well-known 
disease  of  the  eye,  in  which  the  nerves  of  sight  be- 
come seriously  injured  by  inflammation.  In  this  dis- 
ease the  power  of  vision  may  be  lessened,  and  in 
severe  cases  it  may  be  entirely  lost. 


We  have  learned  that : 

1.  There  are  five  ways  in  which  messages  may  reach  the  brain. 

2.  One  of  these  ways,  the  sense  of  touch,  is  through  nerves  which  end  in 
the  skin. 

S.  We  feel  best  with  those  parts  of  the  skin  which  contain  many  nerves. 

4.  The  sense  of  touch  warns  us  of  danger,  and  gives  us  also  a  great  deal 
of  information. 

5.  A  second  way,  the  sense  of  taste,  is  through  nerves  that  end  in  the 
membrane  tliat  covers  the  tongue. 

6.  We  should  learn  to  like  the  taste  of  useful  articles  of  food,  if  we  do 
not  like  them. 

7.  A  third  way,  the  sense  of  smell,  is  through  the  nerves  which  end  in 
the  membrane  that  lines  the  nose. 


ir)S 


IMIYSI(»L(>(;y  FOU  childkkn 


f 

m 


8.  A  fourth  way,  llio  schm'  of  liciiriiig.  is  tliroiij;li  iierve.s  llmt  eml  in  the 


ears. 

9  Tlie  (Iriini  iiu'iiihr.iiio  is  strt'lclied  noross  tlit'  iiiiifr  cinl  of  tjic  esicrnal 
ear. 

10.  In  the  initlilii'  car  tiirot-  small  coiincclcd  boiics  coiincet  the  drum 
ineml)raiie  with  a  memliraiie  at  the  inner  eini  of  the  niiiMIe  ear. 

11.  The  internal  ear  lies  lN-hin<I  the  mi.liile  ear.  and  contains  a  watery 
flidd  in  which  the  ends  of  the  nerves  of  hearinj;  lloal. 

12.  Soniid  waves  of  air  heal  aifainst  the  drnn'  mcmhrane.  Kacli  beat  is 
repeated  liy  means  of  these  hones  on  the  innei-  niend)rMne.  an<l.  as  a  resnlt, 
the  watery  fluid  Iwliind  it  acts  upon  the  nerves  of  hearing  and  causes  us  to 
hear. 

13.  A  fifth  way.  the  sense  of  sij,'lit.  is  tliroui;li  nerves  tliat  end  in  the 
eyes. 

14.  T'.p  eye  l)as  a  siron;;  outer  co.it  to  protect  it. 

15.  Inside  the  while  pari  of  the  outer  coat  is  a  network  of  lilood  tulws, 
vhich  forms  the  secdiid  coa*  of  the  eye. 

16.  Kihres  of  the  nerves  of  sijjht  are  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  the 
inside  of  the  .second  eoiit. 

17.  Hays  of  li^dit  fror.  an  object  enter  the  eye  and  make  an  iinajxe  of  the 
object  o!i  this  layer  of  nerve  fibres,  which  cause  us  t>  see  the  oiijeci. 

IH.  A  little  jriand  aliove  each  eye  supplies  it  ^  i!.  ,  watery  fluid  called 
tears. 

If).  Muscles  are  fastened  to  the  eyeball  and  alio.  -  to  move  it  in  diflfer- 
ent  direcliotis. 

20.  We  should  ite  careful  how  light  falls  on  the  jiajre  we  are  readinp. 


i 


APPENDIX 


WHAT  TO   DO   BEF^OR?     THK   IX  K  TOR 

COMEh 

Accidents  lM^>|)eii  ccniMt.-mtly.  Every  day  -ome  one 
is  cut  or  burned,  or  swallows  jjoison  ]>y  mistake,  or 
falls  and  is  badly  hurt.  As  it  is  not  always  |H»Hsible 
to  s(^'cure  the  services  of  a  }>hysician  ininiediutely  in 
such  emergencies,  every  one  should  learn  how  to  give 
aid  to  the  injured. 

BuriiH  or  scalds.— The  clothing  should  be  re- 
moved with  great  care,  so  as  not  tt)  cause  an  increase 
of  pain,  or  to  disturb  the  injured  ])arts.  The  pain 
may  be  relieved  by  covering  the  burne«l  part  with 
cloth  that  has  been  wet  with  a  warm  solution  of 
commcm  baking  soda  Apply  glycerine,  vaseline,  lard 
or  iiour  to  cover  the  burned  surface  and  protect  it  from 
the  air.  Do  not  put  cold  water  on  a  burn.  Every- 
thing applied  to  a  burn  or  scald,  or  to  any  wounded 
surface,  should  be  perfectly  clean. 

Clothes  on  Are.— Veiy  serious  injuries  are  caused 
by  burning  clothing.  If  anyb<Mly's  clothing  catches 
fire,  wrap  tightly  about  him  a  coverlet,  coat,  blanket. 


IGO 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOR  CHILDREN 


1)  I. 

■  ■  ^V 


vWi 


'M 


sliawl,  nig,  table  cover,  or  something  of  the  kind  that 
can  be  liad,  so  as  to  smother  the  flames.  If  nothing 
suitable  for  wrapping  is  at  hand,  have  him  sit  or  roll 
on  the  floor,  so  as  to  cover  tiie  burning  garments  with 
his  body,  and  try  to  smother  the  flames  in  that  v.  ay. 

The  person  whose  clothes  are  on  fire  should  never 
run — running  only  makes  the  fire  burn  more  quickly. 

To  avoid  swallowing  flame  when  the  clothing  is  on 
fire,  one  should  cover  the  mouth  and  nose  with  the 
ami  and  lie  down  on  the  floor. 

Fainting. — A  person  who  has  fainted  should  be 
placed  flat  on  the  side  or  back,  with  the  head  as  low 
as  the  rest  of  the  body,  or  even  a  little  lower.  If  the 
body  is  in  this  position,  blood  will  flow  to  the  head, 
and  the  faintness  will  pass  off  in  a  few  minutes. 
Always  allow  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

Smelling-salts  or  camphor  may  be  i)laced  under  the 
nose,  but  are  not  often  required. 

Do  not  dash  cold  water  on  a  fainting  person. 
Moisten  the  face  with  a  wet  cloth,  or  apply  to  the 
forehead  a  cloth  wet  with  cold  w'ater.  Do  not  force 
anything  down  the  throat  of  a  j)er8on  who  is  un- 
conscious,  for  he  may  in  this  way  be  choked  to 
death. 

Fits  or  convulsions. — Place  the  patient  in  a  com- 


iCr  f. 


I  I 


APPENDIX 


101 


THE    I'OSmoN    FOU    A    J>EU.SO.\    WHO    HAS    F.VIMEl). 


fortahle  i)<)siti(iii  on  the  side  or  back,  loosen  the 
dotliini;  so  as  to  alUnv  easy  breathiiiir,  and  then  avoid 
movinir  or  disturbin,^  him.  If  the  face  is  red,  place  the 
head  on  a  pillow ;  if  it  is  pale,  let  the  head  be  low. 

Suffocjitioii.— Suffocation  is  frecpiently  caused  by 
coal  iras  from  a  furnace  or  stove,  l)y  gas  used  for  light- 
ing houses,  by  gas  at  the  bottom  of  old  wells  or  in 
coal  mines,  and  by  the  fumes  of  burning  charcoal. 

In  a  case  of  suffocation  from  any  cause,  remove  the 
patient  at  once  to  the  open  air,  loosen  all  tight  cloth- 
ing that  hindera  breathing,  and  moisten  the  face  and 
chest  with  cold  water. 

Sunstroke.— Remove  the  patient  at  once  to  a  cool 


162 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOIt  CIIILDKEX 


m 


place,  and  nib  the  body  witli  ice,  or  apply  plenty  of 
cold  water. 

Frostbite.— Rub  the  fi-ozen  part  with  snow  or  cold 
water,  then  Avrap  it  in  a  wet  cloth.     The  frozen  part 
should  never  be  warmed  (piickly,  but  always  slowly. 
Stiiigr  of  bees,  wasps   and   other  insects. — Re- 
move the  sting, 
?l^|^^  H^  if  it  is  Ipft  in 

the  wound,  and 
apply  ammonia 
water,  a  solu- 
tion of  bakinor 
soda,  or  a  little 
wet  clay. 

Siialie  bites. 
— If  the  bite  is 
on  the  hand  or 
leg,  tie  a  hand- 
kerchief  or 
stout  cord 
loosely  round 
the  limb  above 
the  wound  and  twist  it  tightly  w  ith  a  stick,  to  pre- 
vent the  poison  from  being  carried  upwards  to  the 
rest  of  the  body.     Some  one  should  suck  the  wound 


TO   TKEAT   SNAKE   BITE. 


r^"  •'■•*■' 


APPENDIX 


n}3 


as  quickly  as  possible,  spittini^  out  what  is  thus  takeu 
from  the  Avountl.  There  is  no  danger  in  tloing  this  if 
there  are  no  sores  in  the  mouth. 

Dog  Bites. — If  the  bite  was  nuule  by  a  henlthy 
doff,  wash  the  wound  with  clean  cold  <»r  hot  water, 
and  then  apply  a  pad  wet  w  ith  water.  If  the  doi,'  is 
known  to  be  mad,  treat  the  bite  in  the  same  way  as  a 
snake  bite. 

Cramps.— Sudden,  sharp  j>aius  in  the  abdomen  are 
often  caused  by  eating  unripe  fruit,  vegetables,  or  other 
indigestible  food.  Give  castor  oil,  and  a[)ply  cloths 
soaked  in  hot  water,  or  a  bottle  of  hot  water,  to  the 
abdomen.  If  these  measures  fail  to  gi\<  relief  in  a 
short  time,  send  for  a  physician. 

Bleeding. The    quickest  and  safest  way  to  stop 

bleeding  from  a  wound  of  any  kind  is  to  place  a  linger 
or  thumb  directly  upon  the  spot  that  bleeds. 

Moderate  pressure  on  the  bleeding  spot  will  stop 
the  bleeding  at  once,  whether  the  blood  comes  from  an 
artery,  from  a  vein,  or  from  capillaries. 

Keep  the  finger  applied  to  the  wound  for  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes  and  then  remove  it  slowly. 

If  the  bleeding  begins  again,  apply  the  finger  once 
more,  and  continue  the  pressure  until  medical  aid  can 
be  secured. 


104 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOK  CHILDREN 


pi 

m 


IM 


"ii,- 


m 


£ 


Another  way  to  stop  the  bleediug  of  a  limb  is  by 
the  use  of  a  toiirniqutt.  To  make  a  tourniquet,  first  tie 
a  knot  in  the  centre  of  a  handkercliief  or  a  piece  of 
clotli.  Place  this  knot  just  above  tlie  bleeding  point, 
and  tie  the  ends  of  tlie  handkerchief  about  the  wounded 
limb.  Put  a  stick  inside  the  knot  that  ties  the  ends 
and  twist  hard  to  get  pressure  on  the  blood  tube  that 
is  bleeding. 

Nose-bleed.— Press  firndy  on  the  side  of  the  nose 
from  which  the  blood  comes,  so  as  to  close  the  bleed- 
ing nostril  completely.  At  the  same  time  incline  the 
head  slightly  forward,  to  keep  the  blood  from  running 
down  behind  into  the  throat.  Tf  blood  comes  from 
both  nostrils,  close  them  both  by  pressing  firmly  on 
both  sides. 

If  this  plan  fa. is,  the  nostril  may  be  plugged  with 
cotton,  or  wuth  a  plug  made  from  a  narrow  strip  torn 
from  a  clean  handkerchief  or  other  garment.  The 
strip  may  be  dipped  into  ice  water  or  alum-water,  if 
either  is  at  hand. 

Remove  the  plug  gently  after  five  or  six  hours. 

11  the  bleeding  begins  again,  put  in  another  plug 
and  send  for  a  physician. 

Be  careful  to  avoid  blowing  the  nose  for  some  time 
after  the  bleeding  stops. 


*^KaM*f 


APl'KNUIX 


ICi") 


Foreign  bodies  in  tlio  nose.— If  a  forei^  ^>o<ly, 
such  as  a  pea  or  a  bean,  gets  into  the  nostril,  blowing 
the  nose  may  remove  it,  or  it  may  be  hooked  out  with 
a  looped  wire  or  a  hairpin. 

If  the  first  efforts  at  removal  are  not  successful, 
leave  it  alone  and  send  at  once  for  a  physician. 

Foreign  bodieH  in  tlie  ear.— Foreign  bodies  some- 
times get  into  the  ear.  Insects  occasionally  crawl  into 
it  and  cause  great  ])ain.  The  delicate  drum  membrane 
may  be  injured  unless  great  care  is  used  in  removing 
such  bodies.  It 
is  therefore  much 
safer  to  have 
them  removed  by 
a  doctor. 

Foreign  bod- 
ies in  tlie  eye.— 
A  cinder  or  a  bit 
of  dust  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  eyelid  or  on  the 
surface  of  the  eyeball  may  be  wiped  off  easily  with  the 
comer  of  a  clean  handkerchief,  or  be  washed  out  by 
bathing  the  eye.  If  these  simple  measures  are  not  suc- 
cessful, obtain  the  aid  of  a  physician  without  delay. 

Foreig^n  bodies  in  tlie  tliroat.— Small  pieces  of 
food,  bones  or  other  foreign  matter  may  become  lodged 


REMOVING    A    KOKKHiN    IH)DY    FliOM   THE 
EVEUD. 


wm 


166 


PIIT8IOLOOY   FOU  ClIILDRKN 


[11 

Mi  '  < 

"1 


a 
j  t  i 

r 
I 

I 


irf 


K'.   i 


in  the  throat  and  cause  chokinj?.  If  they  are  not 
coughed  out  quickly,  they  can  often  be  removed  with 
the  first  finger. 

A  few  Muiai-t  slaps  on  the  back  between  the  shoul- 
ders, while  the  Ijody  is  Ijent  forward,  will  often  give 
instant  relief. 

Such  foreign  bodies  as  coins,  pins,  bones,  and  a  great 
variety  of  similar  things,  are  sometimes  swallowed  ac- 
cidentally. 

In  such  cases  it  is  not  wise  to  give  purgatives, 
nor  is  it  wise  to  cause  vomiting.  Give  quantities  of 
mashed  potatoes  and  pancakes,  and  withhold  all  other 
food  for  a  day  or  two.  The  foreign  bodies  become 
coated  over  if  such  foods  as  these  are  given,  and  pass 
along  the  intestine  in  the  natural  way  without  doing 
harm. 

Broken  bones.— A  broken  bone  should  }ye  kept 
as  still  as  possible.  If  it  is  moved  about,  the  broken 
ends,  which  are  usually  sharp  and  jagged,  may  injure 
the  surrounding  soft  parts. 

A  i)atient  with  a  broken  bone  should  not  be  moved, 
if  he  can  be  made  comfortable  where  he  is  until  the 
doctor  comes.  The  injured  limb  should  be  supported 
on  a  }>illow,  or  anything  soft,  and  kept  in  the  position 
in  which  it  is  most  comfortable. 


m 


APPENDIX 


167 


Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  patient  before 
the  doctor  comes,  it  is  best  to  use  some  form  of  tem- 
l>orary  support  to  keep  the  broken  bone  steady  and 
prevent  further  injury. 

In  tlie  fractures  of 
the    arm     or     collar 
bone,  a  sling  gives  all 
the    sui)port   that    is 
required.    If  the  bone 
that  extends  from  the 
elbow   to  the   shoul- 
der be  fractured,  the 
sling  should  support 
the  hand    and    wrist 
only.      If    the  collar 
bone    or    the    bones 
that  extend  from  the 
elbow  to  the  wrist  be 
fractured,    the    sling 
should  be  wide  enough  to  support  the  whole  of  the 
arm  below  the  ell)ow. 

Splints  are  required  when  the  bones  of  the  leg  are 
broken.  A  thin  strip  of  board,  a  walking-cane,  an 
umbrella,  or  any  j^traight  stick  may  be  used.  Two 
splint^  should  be  employed.     One  should  be  placed  on 


A    NEATLY    BANDAGED 
ARM. 


'    II 


168 


PHYSIOLOGY    FOR  CHILDREN 


m 


the  outer  side  of  the  leg  and  the  other  on  the  inner 
side.  The  splints  should  be  padded  to  prevent  pain 
from  pressure.  They  may  be  paiUled  with  cotton, 
pieces  of  cloth,  moss,  grass,  or  any  soft  material  at 
hand ;  and  they  should  be  held  in  place  by  bandages, 
handkerchiefs,  straps,  cords,  or  by  -trips  of  cloth  of 
any  kind. 


BROKEX   LEG   IN   SPLINTS. 


Poisoiiiiijjf. — A  physician  should  be  sent  for  with- 
out delay  whenever  poisoning  is  suspected,  but  do  not 
wait  for  the  physician  to  come  before  trying  to  relieve 
the  patient. 

In  most  cases  of  poiso/iinr/,  the  first  thing  to  Jo  is  to 
make  the  patient  vomit,  and  thus  expel  the  poison  from 
the  stomach.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  wliere 
strong  acids  or  alkalis  have  been  swallowed. 

In  order  to  produce  vomiting,  give  large  quantities 
of  warm  soap  suds,  or  a  mixture  of  mustard  and  water, 
in  the  proportion  of  a  tablespoonful  of  mustard  to  a 
pint  of  water,  or  salt  and  water,  in  the  propoi-tion  of 
two  tablespoonfuls   of  salt  to  a  glass  of   water.     If 


APPENDIX 


nv.* 


none  of  these  can  be  had  quickly,  give  huge  draughts* 
of  warm  water. 

One  or  two  cupfuls  of  any  one  of  thene  8inii)le 
enieticH  shouhl  be  wwaUovved  instantly.  Then  vomit- 
ing may  be  excited  by  putting  a  finger  down  the  throat 
or  by  tickling  the  back  [)ai-t  of  the  throat  with  a 
feather.  As  soon  aa  the  first  attempt  at  vomiting  is 
over,  more  ^  it.  ;•  soap  mds,  nuistard  and  water,  or  salt 
andwa+or,  h'- /.Id  be  given,  and  vomiting  should  be 
excited  air.»'.u. 

Repeat  this  several  times  in  order  to  be  sure  that 
all  the  poison  is  washed  out  of  the  stomach. 

Send,  in  the  meantime,  for  the  proper  antidote  for 
the  poison  that  has  been  taken,  and  give  it  \vith<Mit 
delay.  The  following  is  a  list  of  common  poisons  with 
their  antidotes: 

Sulphinc  acid  or  oil  of  vitn'oJ.—G'we,  in  a  teacup 
of  water,  two  or  three  tablespooufuh  '"f  any  of  the 
following :  baking  soda,  magnesia,  cu.dk,  whiting,  or 
plaster  from  a  wall.     Do  not  induce  vomiting. 

Oxalic  acid,  or  saltx  of  lemon.— G\\e,  in  a  teacup  of 
water,  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  chalk,  magnesia, 
whiting,  lime,  or  plaster  scraped  from  a  wall.     Do  not 

induce  vomiting. 

Carbolic  acid.— Give  two  or  three  glasses  of  milk, 


^ 


170 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


!!!=' 


f* 


iv 


followed  by  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  oil 
or  castor  oil.     Do  not  induce  vomiting. 

Ammonia  or  hartshorn. — Give  four  tablespoonfuls 
of  vinegar  in  a  teacup  of  water,  or  give  lemon  juice  or 
orange  Juice,  followed  by  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet 
oil.     Do  not  induce  vomiting. 

Alcohol. — Try  to  induce  vomiting.  Give  strong 
coffee,  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  head. 

Arsenic  or  Paris  ffnen.—Try  to  induce  vomiting. 
Give  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of  magnesia  in  a 
teacup  of  water,  or  give  castor  oil,  sweet  oil,  lime 
water,  ^a^v  eggs  and  milk.  Get  dialized  iron  from  a 
drug  store.  Directions  for  its  use  accomimny  the 
preparation. 

Copper  or  blue  vitriol. — Try  to  induce  vomiting. 
Give  white  of  eggs  and  milk. 

LeaJ,  sugar  of  lead. — Try  to  induce  vomiting.  Give 
white  of  eggs  and  flax-seed  tea. 

Mercury^  bichloride  of  mercury  or  corrosive  suhli- 
mate. — Try  to  induce  vomiting.  Give  milk,  white  of 
eg^,  and  flour  in  water. 

Ojnum,  or  the  following  drugs  which  are  made 
from  opium  or  contain  opium  :  morphine,  laudanum, 
paregoric,  Dover's  j^^rder,  Godfreys  cordial,  soothing 
syrups. — Make  the  patient  vomit,  and  keep  him  awake 


APPENDIX 


171 


by  tapping  him  on  the  forehead  ^vith  the  finger  nails, 
or  by  striking  his  face  with  the  end  of  a  wet  towel. 
Be  very  careful  not  to  allow  him  to  become  cold.  Keep 
him  on  his  feet.     Do  not  let  him  lie  down  or  sit  down. 

PhosjyJiorus,  used  in  making  matches  and  in  rat 
poison. — Try  to  induce  vomiting.  Give  two  or  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  magnesia  or  chalk  in  a  teacup  of 
w'ater.     Avoid  giving  oil  or  fat. 

Dtrpentine.— Try  to  induce  vomiting.  Give  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  Epsom  salts  in  half  a  teacup  of 
water,  and  large  quantities  of  flaxseed  tea. 

Toadstools  and  poisonous  berries. — Try  to  induce 
vomiting.  Give  two  tablespocmfnls  of  Epsom  salts  in 
half  a  teacup  of  water,  and  castor  oil. 

How  to  avoid  poisoning  accidents. — ^These  un- 
fortunate accidents  would  scarcely  ever  occur  if  all 
bottles  and  packages  containing  poison  were  kept  by 
themselves  in  a  suitable  place.  A  bottle  of  carbolic 
acid  or  liniment,  for  example,  should  never  be  placed 
on  a  shelf  beside  a  bottle  of  medicine  that  is  intended 
for  internal  use.  It  is  dangerously  easy,  especially  at 
night,  to  mistake  one  for  the  other. 

Keep  all  poisons  looked  up  in  a  place  set  apart  espe- 
cialhf  for  them. 

A   label,  with  the  name  of   the   contents   plainly 


172 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


IS' 


mA 


marked  on  it,  should  be  put  on  every  bottle  or  pack- 
age, whether  it  contains  i)oi8on  or  not.  If  the  label  is 
lost,  throw  away  the  contents  of  the  package  or  bottle. 


AUTIKK  lAL    IN.SI'IHATION. 

One  mistake  may  cost  many  times  the  value  of  what 
is  thrown  away. 

What  t<>  do  ill  a  case  of  drowiiiiijii:. — In  a  case  of 
drowning  the  first  thing  is  to  get  the  body  out  <.f  the 
water.     Unless  the  weathcM-  is  severe,  do  not  wait  to 


*!a^- 


APPENDIX 


ira 


caiTy  the  patient  to  a  place  of  slielter,  but  try  at  ouce 
to  revive  liim.  There  are  two  things  that  you  want 
to  do — restore  breathing,  and  get  the  body  warm. 
Loor^en  the  clothing  about  the  neck  and  chest,  and 
turn  the  body  face  down.  Then  wipe  out  the  mouth 
and  throat  with  your  finger,  covered  with  a  clean 
cloth,  or  handkerchief. 

AVhile  the  body  is  face  downwai'd  place  your  hands 
under  the  abdomen,  and  raise  the  ])ody  until  the  fare- 
head  just  rests  on  the  groun<l,  so  that  the  water  in  the 
mouth  and  throat  may  run  out. 

Then  turn  the  body  on  its  back,  and  place  a  roll  of 
clothing,  or  something  else  a  few  inches  high,  under 
the  shouldei-s  so  as  to  raise  the  chest.  This  straightens 
out  the  neck,  and  holds  the  chin  away  from  the  chest. 

As  the  patient  lies  on  his  back  insensi])le,  the  t<>ngue 
is  apt  to  fall  back  into  the  throat,  and  close  the  air- 
passage  wliich  leads  from  the  mouth  to  the  luuirs. 
The  tonirue,  therefore,  should  be  carefully  drawn  well 
forward,  out  of  the  mouth,  and  held  in  that  i>osition, 
to  allow  the  free  passage  of  air  to  the  lungs.  It  can 
be  held  nioi'e  easily  if  a  handkerchief  or  ch>th  is  used, 
as  in  the  picture. 

Artificial  breathing  can  then  be  produced  by  move- 
ments which  cause  the  chest  to  become  altcrmitely 


i 


174 


PIIYSIOLOdY    FOU   ClIILDREX 


larger  and  sniallei*,  as  in  natural  breatliing.     One  of 
the  best  ways  of  doing  tliis  is  by  Sylvesters  method. 

Have  some  one  kneel  beiiind  the  head  of  the  patient, 
and  grasp  his  arms  just  below  the  tdbow,  tlien  swino- 


Ain  iH(  lAL    }  XI'II.'.\:  KlX. 

them  around  from  the  body  until  tliey  are  luirallel 
Avitli  the  head.  This  movement  causes  the  chest  to 
become  larger.  The  lungs  f^xpand,  and  air  goes  in  to 
fill    them   as   in   natural  inspiration.     Aftei-  a  slight 


um^'S'itTify, 


APPENDIX 


17.> 


pause,  briui;  the  ai'ins  buck  to  their  fii-st  position  be- 
side the  body,  and  press  iirndy  uLrainst  the  h)wer  ribs. 
This  movement  lessens  the  size  of  the  chest  and  forces 
air  out  of  the  hinors,  as  in  natural  expiiation.  The 
movements  should  be  repeated  about  sixteen  times  a 
minute,  and  should  be  kept  u]>  eitiier  until  natural 
breathing  is  restored,  or  until  a  physician  declares  that 
the  heai"t  has  ceased  to  beat. 

Since  recoveiy  sometimes  takes  place  after  artificial 
breathing  has  been  kept  up  for  two  or  three  Iiouin,  do 
not  be  easily  discouraged.  Natural  breathing  com- 
mences feebly,  and  it  should  be  aided  as  nuich  as  pos- 
sible by  swinging  the  arms  back  at  the  tinie  of  natural 
inspiration,  and  bringing  them  down  to  the  sides  at 
the  time  of  natural  expiration,  until  the  breathing  be- 
comes  strong. 

Natural  breathing  may  be  stinudated  by  holding 
smelling  salts  or  hartshorn  near  the  nose,  but  strong 
hartshorn  should  not  be  held  too  close,  as  it  may  cause 
injury  to  the  inside  of  the  nose. 

Besides  working  to  restore  natural  breathing,  try  in 
every  possible  w;iy  to  get  the  body  warm.  Have  the 
clothing  removed  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  body 
dried  gently.  Cover  it  with  any  dry  blankets,  shawls, 
or  clothing  that  can  be  obtained.     Place  along  the 


L 


«iBjsr'?=sJ6?*ri'»«eti!H^*/*Bi4*.'iw«  • 


170 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


ml 


sides  of  the  tmnk  and  limbs  any  hot  stones,  bricks, 
boards  or  sand  that  have  been  heated  by  the  sun,  or 
any  hot  water  bottles,  or  other  objects  that  can  be 
secured.  Have  the  limbs  and  trunk  rubbed  gently 
but  firmly  towards  the  chest,  so  as  to  pro<luce  warmth, 
and  alst)  to  aid  the  blood  in  its  return  to  the  heart. 
As  soon  as  the  patient  can  swallow,  give  him  fre- 
(juently  hot  drinks,  such  as  teji,  coffee,  or  even  water, 
lie  may  also  be  given,  as  a  stimulant,  half  a  teas])oon- 
ful  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  water,  every  half  hour,  till  the  feet  and  hands  be- 
come warm,  and  the  patient  feels  comfortable.  When 
he  feels  well  enough  to  be  removed,  he  should  be  ear- 
ned carefully,  Avith  head  Ioav,  and  put  into  a  warm 
bed.  Some  one  should  remain  with  him  for  a  while 
so  that  j^rompt  measures  may  be  taken  if  breathing 
should  again  stof). 

Causes  and  prevention  of  disease.— Disease  may 
be  caused  by  improper  food,  by  over-eating,  by  impure 
diinking  water,  by  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
or  of  tobacco,  by  uuhealthful  surroundings,  bad  habits, 
lack  of  exercise,  and  in  other  ways. 

Some  diseases,  such  as  measles,  scarlet  fever  and 
small  pox  are  contagious.  The  germs  Avhicli  cause 
these  diseases  are  given  off  from  the  bodies  of  those 


. 


APPENDIX 


177 


who  are  sick  with  them,  are  carried  in  some  way 
through  the  air,  and  euter  the  bodies  of  those  who 
are  near.  The  germs  of  contagious  diseases  may  be 
earned  from  a  distance  in  lettere  or  books,  clothing, 
toys,  furniture,  and  similar  objects. 

The  germ  that  causes  diphtheria  is  contained  in  the 
saliva,  and  in  the  dis- 
charges from  tlie  nose 
and  mouth  of  a  patient 
ill  with  this  disease, 
but  it  is  not  carried  by 
the  breath. 

Consumption  of  the 
lungs  may  be  given  to 
one  person  by  another. 
Tiie  germ  which  causes 
consumption  is   ahva}s        cox^i mi>tiu.\  gehms.    (Ma-nifii^a.) 

contained  in  what  a  patient,  who  is  ill  with  consump 
tion,  coughs  up.  This  is  called  the  sputum.  If  it  be- 
comes dry,  it  will  mingle  with  the  dust  in  tlie  air  and 
may  be  inhaled  by  others.  Both  the  patient  and  the 
family  .Hhouiil  do  their  best  to  i)revent  this  by  dispos- 
ing of  the  sputum  in  the  right  way. 

It  may  be  received  into  a  spittoon  containing  a  lit- 
tle water,  and  afterwards  be  buried  or  emptied  into 
13 


178 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREN 


Hi 


the  sewer.  Or  it  may  be  received  on  a  piece  of  cloth 
and  then  be  burned.  So  long  as  the  germs  are  kept 
moist,  tliey  are  harmless. 

Ev^ery  one  should  be  careful  not  to  use  a  cup  or 
other  drinking  vessel  that  has  been  used  by  one  who 
has  sore  throat,  sores  on  the  tongue,  in  the  mouth,  on 
the  face,  on  the  lips,  or  on  other  parts  of  the  body. 
All  those  who  have  sore  eyes,  or  any  kind  of  sores  of 
the  skin,  sliould  always  use  a  separate  towel. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  spread  of  contagious  disease.  lu  such 
diseases  the  patient  and  his  nurse  should  be  kept 
away  from  she  rest  of  the  family,  until  all  danger  of 
contagion  is  pa?«t.  The  clothing,  rooms  and  furniture 
of  the  whole  house  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
made  harmless  according  to  the  doctors  directions. 

Cleanliness  will  do  a  great  deal  towards  preventing 
disease.  The  germs  that  causf  disease  often  cling  to 
dust.  For  this  reason  walls,  floor-,  curL^ins  and  cl(rth- 
ing  should  be  kej^t  i.s  tree  fi-om  <lust  as  ])i>s8ible. 

Flies  and  mosquitoes  often  carry  disease  trerma 
and  leave  the?n  on  our  food,  or  force  them  into  our 
bodies.  Ex;;epi<  at  m'^il  r'nie,  all  fotnl  should  be  kept 
covered,  so  that  flies  cannot  "et  at  it,  and  doors  and 
M-inlows  should   be  8<_reened  m  as  to  keep  flies  and 


APPENDIX 


179 


mosquitoes  out  of  the  house.  It  has  been  shown 
by  experiment  that  malarial  and  vellow  ^'vers  are 
probably  'lue  to  mo8«juito  bites. 

Fresli  air  and  sunlight  are  great  .•\,r'ci?>.  Both 
should  be  admitted  freely  to  our  ho.ncjs.  Clothing, 
bedding  and  furniture  should  from  time  to  time  be 
put  out  in  the  sunlight,  so  that  any  germs  they  may 
contain  may  be  destroyed. 

Clothing  that  is  woni  during  the  day  should  not  be 
worn  at  night,  but  should  be  hung  up,  to  air  and  dry. 


EXPERIMENTS 


(For  the  Teacher) 


A  NUMBER  of  good  specimens  for  object  lessons  in 
physiology  may  be  obtained  without  difficulty.  These 
should  be  carefully  prepared  before  they  are  brought 
into  the  class  room.  x\ll  blood  stams  and  superfluous 
tissue,  such  as  fut  and  skin,  should  be  removed  from 
fresii  specimens  so  as  to  have  them  as  neat  as  i^ossible. 
After  they  are  made  ready,  they  should  be  kept  in 
damp  cotton  cloth  till  they  are  used. 

In  addition  to  specimens,  a  sharj)  knife,  a  pair  of 
scissors,  a  few  large  plates,  and  u  few  towels  will  be 
needed. 

BONES 

To  show  structure  of  hone. — Ask  a  butcher  to 
prepare  the  shin  bone  of  a  sheep,  or  calf,  by  sawing  it 
across  the  middle,  and  by  sawing  one  of  the  pieces 
into  halves  lengthwise. 

(1)  Siiow  the  central  cavity  of  the  shaft,  and  the 
ring  of  solid  bone  surrounding  it. 


^I&L. 


KXI'KKIMKNTS 


181 


(2)  Cuiiipaie  the 
shaft  witli  the  en«l  of 
tlie  bone,  and  olvserve 
that  th»'i'e  is  no  cav- 
ity in  the  end. 

(3)  Compare  an 
old  <lrv  l)one  witli  a 
fresli  one,  and  notic*- 
their  different  appear- 
ance. Small  holes 
may  be  seen  in  dried 
bones,  showing  where 
arteries  entered  to 
carry  blood  for  the 
nourishment  of  tlie 
bones. 

Joints. — Get  a  fresh  knee-joint  from  the  fore  lej;  of 
a  sheep.  Have  the  bone  cut  off  about  three  inches 
above  the  joint,  and  three  inches  below  it. 

(1)  Show  the  movement  which  this  joint  al- 
lows. 

(2)  Cut  the  joint  open  and  show  the  joint  oil,  or 
synovial  fluid. 

(3)  Show  the  firm,  tough  ligamei.^;,  that  form  the 
side  walls  of  the  joint. 


IIAI.I.    AND    SOCKET   OF  HIP-JOTNT. 


MtOOCOTY  HKMinON  TBT  CNART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


1.0 


I.I 


Itt 


116 


|4J 


2.5 
2.2 

2.0 


1.25  lu 


1.6 


A 


/PPUB3  UVHGE     Ine 


I6S1  Cm(  Moin  StrMt 

ReehMtw,  Nm  York       14(09 

USA 

(7I«)  4*2  -  OJOO  -  Pfiom 

(7lt)  2M-9IM-Fa>< 

182 


PIIYSIOLOOY   FOR  CHILDREN 


/ 


w 


Partially  dissect  out 
a  ligament,  leaving  one 
end  fastened  to  the 
bone,  and  show  its 
action. 

(4)  Show  the 
smooth  surface  of  the 
cartilage  which  covers 
the  ends  of  tlie  bone. 

Try  to  get  also  the 
ball  and  socket  of  the 
hip-joint  of  a  sheep. 
If  this  is  impractica- 
ble, get  the  joint  from 
a  fiesh  ham,  or  the  hip-joint  of  a  chicken  or  tuikey. 

(5)  Show  the  ball  of  this  kind  of  joint  and  the 
socket  into  which  it  fits.  Have  the  pupil  notice  how 
freelv  the  ball  can  move  in  different  dii-ectious  in  its 
socket. 

(6)  Comjiare  the  freedom  of  movement  of  the  ball 
and  socket  joints  with  the  more  limited  movement  of 
the  knee-joint. 

(7)  Compare  also  the  free  movement  of  the  shoul- 
der-joints with  the  more  limited  movement  of  the 
elbow-joints. 


UALL  AND   SOCKET   OF   SHOl'LDER- 
JOIXT. 


EXPEKIMEXTS 


183 


MUSCLE 

Fresh,  lean  meat  of  any  kind  will  serve  well  to  illus- 
trate  the  appearance  of  muscle. 

(1)  Get  a  small  piece  of  lean  corned  heef,  with  the 
fibres  iiinning  i  the  same  direction.  After  it  has  l»een 
boiled,  you  will  be  able  to  separate  the  fibres  of  which 
the  muscle  is  composed,  because  boilinir  softens  the 
connective  tissue  that  holds  them  together.  Use  a 
masinifvinir  fflass  to  show  the  finest  fil)res. 

(2)  Have  each  pupil  gras})  his  arm  between  the 
shoulder  and  the  elbow,  then  bend  the  arm  up  and 
down  at  the  elbow.  The  bicei)s  muscle  will  be  felt 
swelling  up  in  the  middle,  as  it  contracts,  and  becom- 
ing smaller,  as  it  relaxes.  Have  a  pui)il  with  a  large 
biceps  bare  his  arm  and  show  the  contraction  and 
relaxation  of  the  nuiscle, 

(i\)  Have  the  pupil  notice  the  tendons  of  the  back 
of  his  hand,  as  he  opens  and  closes  it. 

(4)  The  position  and  shaj>e  of  some  of  the  muscles 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  of  a  chicken  or  turkey  may 
be  easily  shown.  Cut  off  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  be- 
fore 1  'S  cooked.  llemoNe  the  skin  and  carefully 
separa.vr  the  muscles. 

Show  the  thin  sheets  of  connective  tissue  that 
bind    the    muscles   together.       Show   also    how   the 


184 


PHYSIOLOGY  FOR  CHILDREN 


muscles  are  attached  to  tendons. 
t(j  ^liovv  how  the  toes  are  moved. 


Pull  the  tendons 


FOOD 

Samples  of  different  kinds  of  food  may  be  used  to 
illustrate  the  classification  of  foods. 

Proteid. — White  of  egg  is  pure  albumen,  a  well- 
known  form  of  proteid. 

(1)  Show  the  pupil  the  effect  of  heat  ujion  it. 

(2)  Scrape  a  piece  t)f  lean  raw  beef.  The  part  that 
is  scraped  off  consists  largely  of  another  form  of  pro- 
teid.     The  shreds  that  remain  are  connective  tissue. 

(3)  Put  some  wheat  flour  in  a  little  muslin  bag, 
hold  it  under  a  stream  of  water  and  knead  it  until 
the  water  comes  away  almost  clear.  What  remains  in 
the  bag  is  largely  gluten,  another  form  of  proteid. 

Starch  and  sugar. — Samples  of  raw  starch,  such 
as  corn  starch  or  laundry  starch,  may  be  shown.  The 
test  for  starch  is  iodine.  It  gives  starch  a  very  dark 
blue  color,  which  becomes  a  beautiful  light  blue  when 
water  is  added. 

(1)  Get  at  a  drug  store  an  ounce  of  the  tincture  of 
iodine,  a  small  spirit  lamp,  a  little  alcohol  for  the 
lamp,  and  three  or  four  test  tubes  about  six  inches 
long. 


EXPERIMENTS 


185 


(2)  Put  into  a  test 
tube  about  two  inolies 
of  water,  and  about  as 
much  starch  as  will  lie 
on  the  end  of  a  pen- 
knife. Shake  well  and 
then  boil  for  a  few 
minutes  over  the  spirit 
lamp,  until  the  starch 
becomes  clear. 

Note. — To  make  a  holder  for 
the  test  tube,  fold  a  piece  of 
paper  two  or  three  times,  wrap 
the  middle  of  the  paper  round 
the  test  tube,  and  hold  the  tube 
over  the  flame  by  the  ends  of  the  paper.  When  you  begin  to  heat  the 
test  tube,  hold  it  a  little  distance  from  the  flame,  and  move  it  around,  so 
that  the  heat  may  not  be  applied  to  just  one  place.  If  it  is,  the  glass  will 
break. 

Allow  the  contents  of  the  tube  to  cool,  pour  a  little 
into  another  test  tube,  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine  to  the 
second  tube.  The  iodine  will  give  a  very  dark  blue 
color.  Dilute  with  water,  and  the  color  will  become  a 
beautiful  light  blue. 

(3)  Take  a  small  piece  of  each  of  the  following: 
bread,  cooked  lean  meat,  cooked  fat  meat,  cooked  pota- 
toes, cooked  white  of  egg,  cooked  rice,  white  sugnr, 


HOLDING    THE   TEST   TUBE    OVEH   THE 
SPIRIT   LAMP. 


I 


It '  ■ 


186 


PHYSIOLOGY  FOR  CHILDREN 


soda  biscuit.  Put  a  drop  of  iodine  on  each.  Show 
the  pupil,  by  the  blue  color,  which  c^ntain  starch  and 
which  do  not.     Test  other  kinds  of  food  for  starch. 

The  test  for  the  kind  (^  sugar  contained  in  milk  is 
Fehl'ng's  solution,  which  is  blue  in  color.  Get  an 
ounce  of  the  solution  and  a  few  test  tubes  from  a 
drug  store.  For  convenience  the  tubes  may  be  placed 
in  a  deep  cup  or  glass.  In  one  of  the  tubes  put  an 
inch  of  water  and  as  much  Fehling's  solution.  In 
another  put  an  inch  of  fresh  milk  and  as  much 
Fehling's  solution.  Heat  the  fii-st  tube,  and  notice 
that  the  color  does  not  change,  even  when  the  water 
boils.  Heat  the  second,  and  you  will  find  that  the 
color  will  change  to  a  reddish  brown,  showing  the 
presence  of  sugar  in  the  milk. 

Fats. — Show  sainpies  of  fats.  Butter  and  lard  are 
obtained  from  animals.  Sweet  oil  and  cotton-seed  oil 
are  obtained  from  vegetables. 

Mine  I'als. — Procure,  at  a  drug  store,  samples  of  a  few 
of  the  more  common  salts  which  are  contained  in  food, 
such  as  calcium  phosphate,  sodium  phosphate,  sodium 
bicarbonate,  and  potassium  chloride.  An  ounce  or 
more  of  each  of  these  may  be  put  into  small  bottles, 
which  should  be  labeled  and  kept  for  further  use. 
Compare  each  of  these  salts  with  ordinary  table  salt. 


EXPERIMENTS 


187 


If  possible,  secure  8ami)le8  of  so-called  niiueral 
waters.  Mineral  waters  contain,  in  solution,  a  larger 
amount  of  mineral  matter  than  other  water. 


DIGESTION 

The  teeth. — Obtain  samples  of  the  different  kinds 
of  teeth  from  a  dentist,  or  get  the  tooth  of  a  sheep  or 
pig,  which  will  show  the  structure  of  the  human  tooth. 

(1)  Show  the  root,  the  crown,  and  the  enamel  to 

the  pupil. 

(2)  Break  a  tooth  with  a  hammer,  and  show  tlie 
pulp  cavity  and  the  channels  in  the  roots  for  nerves. 

Saliva To  illustrate  the  action  of  digestive  fluids, 

the  action  of  saliva  upon  starch  is  taken  ])ecause  every 
one  is  familiar  with  saliva.  Saliva  changes  starch  into 
a  kind  of  sugar,  the  test  for  which  is  Fehling  s  solution. 

(1)  Put  into  a  test  tube  about  two  inches  of  water 
and  as  nmch  starch  as  will  lie  on  the  end  of  a  penknife. 
Shake  well,  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  and  cool. 

Put  into  another  test  tube  about  half  an  inch  of 
saliva,  and  a  very  little  of  the  boiled  starch.  Hold 
this  tube  in  warm  water  for  five  or  ten  minutes  and 
stir  contents.  Then  pour  half  of  contents  into  another 
tube  or  vessel. 

Put  a  drop  of  iodine  on  a  lump  of  white  sugar,  and 


188 


PHYSIOLOGY  FOB  CHILDREX 


ti'A    ■' 


have  the  pupil  notice  the  reddish  brown  color.  Let  a 
drop  of  iodine  run  down  the  side  of  the  tube  or  vessel 
into  the  saliva  and  starch.  If  the  saliva  has  changed 
all  the  starch  to  sugar,  only  the  reddish  brown  color 
will  ai)pear,  but  if  the  iodine  comes  in  contact  with 
any  unchanged  starch,  the  reddish  brown  color  will  be 
followed  by  a  dark  blue,  almost  black,  color.  Dilute 
with  water,  and  you  will  get  the  light  blue  color 
characteristic  of  the  iodine  test  for  starch. 

(2)  To  the  other  half  of  the  starch  and  saliva  add 
an  equal  quantity  of  Fehling's  solution.  Boil,  and 
the  blue  color  of  the  solution  will  change  to  a  red  or 
reddish  brown,  showing  the  presence  of  sugar. 

The  following  experiments  may  be  made  with  a  com- 
mon soda  biscuit : 

(3)  Put  a  drop  of  iodine  on  a  small  piece  of  biscuit 
and  show  the  presence  of  starch  by  the  blue  color.  Put 
the  part  of  the  biscuit  stained  dark  blue  into  water; 
stir  and  dilute,  and  you  will  get  the  light  blue  color. 

(4)  Chew  a  piece  of  the  same  biscuit  for  half  a 
minute ;  then  divide  what  has  been  chewed  into  two 
parts.  Add  a  little  water  to  one  part,  and  shake  well. 
Put  a  little  of  the  mixture  into  a  test  tube ;  add  an 
equal  quantity  of  Fehling's  solution,  and  boil.  A  red 
or  reddish    brown   color  will  be  seen,  showing  the 


EXPERIMENTS 


189 


presence  of  sugar,  which  has  been  iimduccd  by  the 
action  of  the  saliva  on  the  starch  of  the  biscuit. 

(5)  To  the  other  i)art  of  chewed  biscuit  a(hl  a  drop 
of  iodine.  The  blue  color  seen  shows  the  presence 
of  starch  and  proves  that  saliva  is  able  to  change  only 
a  part  of  our  starchy  food  to  sugar. 

The  stomach. — Get  a  small  piece  of  the  wall  of  a 

mg  8  stomach.      Have  the  pupil,  with  the  aid  of  a 

.'  ifying  glass,  find  the  opening  of  the  glands  which 

cryte  the  gastric  juice. 

Theliverandpaiicreas.— Aliver  and  a  pancreas 

from  a  sheep  or  a  pig  may  easily  be  obtained  from  a 

butcher.     These  may  be  shown  to  the  class. 

CIRCULATION 

The  pulse. — (1)  Have  the  pupil  feel  with  the  first 
finger  for  the  pulse  at  the  wrist.  It  is  best  found  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  base  of  the  thumb,  and  just 
a  little  to  the  outer  side  of  the  tendons.  Have  the 
pupil  count  the  number  of  beats  to  the  minute. 

The  heart.— Get  a  sheep's  heart  from  a  butcher. 
Ask  him  for  one  with  the  sac  still  surrounding  it,  and 
request  him  to  leave  the  large  artery  and  the  veins  for 
two  or  three  inches  above  the  heart. 

(2)  Tut  open  the  sac  which  surrounds  the  heart  and 


i 

I       i 


\     I 
{      1 1 


190 


PHYSIOLOdY   FOB  CIIILDIJEX 


small 
show 


show  its  siuootli, 
slippery  lining. 
This  prevents 
friction  between 
the  sitles  of  the 
heart  and  the 
enclosing  sac. 

(3)  Cut  through 
the  wails  of  the 
heart  to  show 
its  cavities. 
Push  a  pencil,  or 

twig,  down  through  the  arteries  and  veins   to 

that  they  open  into  the  cavities. 

THE   LUNGS 


1 

( 

KM  H  '\ 

mT  '^^^^^IH^^ 

i*<5ii 

^^HB|^  ,.v' 

mmi'T-'-j 

FEELING   THE    I'LLSE. 


Procure  the  fresh  lungs  and  windpipe  of  a  sheep. 
AVash  away  all  traces  of  blood,  and  remove  fat  and 
other  unnecessary  tissue. 

(1)  Have  the  pupil  examine  the  windpipe,  and 
notice  its  rings  of  cartilage.  The  lungs  may  be  in- 
flated by  pushing  a  glass  tube  well  down  into  the 
windpipe  and  blowing  into  it.  A  better  way  is  to 
insert  the  tube  of  a  bicycle  pump  well  into  the  wind- 
pipe and  then  force  air  into  tlie  lungs  with  the  pump. 


^ 


KXPERIMEXTS 


191 


(2)  Cut  away  the  parts  of  one  lunj;  that  surround 
the  bronchus.  Expose  the  bronchus  and  show  its 
branches.  Follow  some  of  these  branches  till  they 
become  (juite  small. 

(3)  With  a  tape  line  measure  the  chest  of  a  i»upil 
on  the  outside  of  tlie  clothing.  Have  the  class  not*- 
the  size  after  a  complete  expiration  and  again  after  a 
full  inspiration,  to  show  that  the  chest  increases  in 
size  during  inspiration. 

(4)  Have  each  pupil  count  the  number  of  times  he 
breathes  in  a  minute.  But  as  no  one  is  ai)t  to  breathe 
normally  when  he  is  thinking  about  it,  suggest  to  the 
pupil  to  count  the  number  of  resi)irati>>ns  to  the 
minute  of  some  one  who  does  not  know  tliat  he  is 
being  watched. 

(5)  Exi>irevl  air  contains  considernlde  water.  To 
show  this,  breathe  on  a  mirror  and  let  the  pupil  see 
the  resultant  moisture. 

(6)  Expired  air  contains  carbon  dic.xide.  To 
show  this,  have  the  ]m\n\  blow  gently  several 
times  through  a  straw,  or  a  glass  tube,  into  a  glass 
of  lime  water.  The  lime  water  soon  becomes  n)ilky 
in  appearance,  because  the  carbon  dioxide  unites 
with  the  lime  in  the  water,  to  form  carbonate  of 
lime. 


1  ^,* 


192 


PUYSIOLOOY   FOK  CHILDREN 


Lime  water  may  bo  obtained  at  a  drug  store,  or  it  may  easily  be  made. 
Take  a  <iiiart  of  water  and  put  into  it  a  handful  of  slaketl  lime.  Stir  it  well 
every  ton  ur  flfteen  minutes  and  at  tlio  end  of  an  hour  let  it  settle.  UemoTC 
any  scum  lyin^  on  the  top  and  (wur  ofif  the  clear  liquid. 


THE   BRAIN 

Ask  tlie  butcher  to  saw  open  the  skull  of  a  sheep 
carefully,  and  remove  the  brain  without  injuring  it. 
Procure  from  him  three  or  four  inches  of  the  spinal 
cord  of  the  sheep  along  with  the  brain. 

(1)  Show  the  deep  fissure  which  divides  the  brain 
into  two  equal  parts.  Show  the  wrinkled  surface  of 
the  brain,  and  pass  a  pencil  down  into  the  hollows  to 
show  their  depth. 

(2)  Point  out  soiie  of  the  nerves  that  start  from 
the  under  surface  of  the  brain. 

(3)  Show  that  the  brain,  as  the  spinal  cord,  extends 
<lownwards  into  the  sj^ine. 


KEY   TO  THE   PICTURE   ON    PAGE    11. 
((',  wiudpiiK; ;  b,  breastbone  ;  r,  ribs ;  I,  lungs  ;  Ir,  liver  ;  t,  stomach  ;  i,  iutestiuv. 


f 
I 


IM 
If    I- 


'r 


IP  t 


KEY    TO   THE    PICTURE    ON    PAGE    14. 

b,  blood  tubes  ;  li,  heart ;  p,  parUtion  between  cliegt  and  abdomen  ;  /,  liver  ;  »,  stomach  ; 

/.  intestine. 


KEY    TO   THE    PICTinE   0\    PAGE   Gf). 
Stoiiiacli  ill  its  iwitiirni  |)n»iitiiiii. 
stiiiiuirli  ;  /,  livor  ;  g.  pill  blaililor  ;  ;).  iiaiiir('a(« ;  i,  iiilcctino. 


KEV   TO  THE    PICTURE    ON    PAGP,    71. 

Part  of  the  «tomacli  cut  away,  to  show  pancreas. 

;,  liver ;  g,  gall  bladder ;  k,  stomach  ;  i,  intestine ;  /),  pancreas. 


p£ 


r 


GLOSSxYRY 

Ab-do'ineu,  tlie  lower  part  of  the  trunk. 
al-bu'men,  a  kind  of  proteid,  as  white  of  egg. 
a-nat'o-my,  the  science  that  tells  of  the  parts  of  the 

body  and  their  arrangement. 
a-or'ta,  the  great  artery  that  starts  from  the  left  side 

of  the  heart. 
ar'ter-y,  a  blood   tube   through  which   ])loo<l   iiows 

away  from  the  heart. 
bile,  a  bitter  yellowish  fluid  made  from  the  blood  by 

the  liver. 
cap'il-la'ries,  verj^  small  blood   tubes  that   connect 

the  arteries  and  veins. 
car'boii  dl-ox'itle,  a  colorless  gas  ju'oduced  by  res- 
piration and  also  by  fermentation. 
car'ti-lage,  gristle. 
clr'cu-la'tioii,  movement    of  the  blood  through  the 

blood  tubes. 
cor'pus-cle,  a  blood  cell. 


198 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  ClIILDKEX 


di-ges'tioii,  the  process  of  dissolving  and  changing 
food,  that  it  may  nourish  the  body. 

dis'til-la'tioii,  the  process  of  separating  one  sub- 
stance from  another,  or  others,  by  driving  it  off 
in  vapor  and  afterwards  condensing  it. 

en-am'el,  the  hard  covering  of  the  crown  of  a  tooth. 

e-soph'a-giis,  the  tube  through  which  the  food 
passes  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach. 

ex'pi-ra'tion,  the  act  of  breathing  out  air  from  the 
lungs. 

fer'nieii-ta'tioii,  the  process  by  which  one  sub- 
stance is  changed  into  others  by  the  action  of 
ferments. 

gas'tric  juice,  a  thin,  acid  fluid  nude  from  the  blood 

by  tlie  glands  of  the  stomach. 
gland,  an  organ  that  can  take  material  from  tlie  blood 

and  make  new  material  of  it. 

liy'gi-eiie,  the  science  that  tells  how  to  preserve  and 
improve  the  health. 

iii'spi-ra'tioii,   the   act    of    ])reathing    air   into    the 

lungs. 
in-tes'tine,  the   part  of  the    digestive  tube   that  is 

below  the  stomach. 


^ 


GLOSSARY 


1i>i> 


i'ris,  a  tliiii  colored  curtain  in  the  front  part  of  the  eye. 
lac'te-al,  a  little   tube,    in   a   villus,  that   takes   up 

digested  fat. 
lig'a-iiieiit,  a  l)and  of  connective  tissue   that  holds 

together  the  bones  of  a  joint. 
nar-cot'ic,  a  drug   which   in    small   doses   produces 

sleep,  and   in  large  doses  produces  stupor  or 

even  death. 
nlc'o-tiiie,  a  poison  contained  in  the  leaves  of  tobacco. 
or'j^aii,  any  part  of  the  body  that  perforins  a  special 

v'ork. 
ox'y-geii,  one  of  the  gases  of  which  air  is  composed. 
pan'cre-as,  a  gland  that  is  behind  the  stomach. 
pan'cre-at'lc  juice,  a  digestive  fluid  made  from  the 

blood  by  the  pancreas. 
pro'te-ids,  a  class  of  substances  that  exists  in  almost 

all  animal  and  vegetable  tissues. 
pulse,  the  beating  of  the  arteries  as  the  blood  is  forced 

through  them  by  the  heart. 
sa-li'va,  the  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the  salivary 

glands;  spittle. 
sall-va'ry  glands,  the  glands  that  make  saliva  from 

the  blood.  . 


aoo 


PHYSIOLOGY   FOR  CHILDREX 


\l    ■ 


if  ■■ 
II'  !■ 
ii'  y 

till 

|4   !i 


gkel'e-ton,  the  bony  framework  of  tlie  body. 
spine,  the  backbone. 

sprain,  a  straining  or  twisting  of  the  ligaments  of  a 
joint. 

stoni'acli,  a  muscular  sac,  or  enlargement  of  the  tube 
in  which  disgestion  is  carried  on. 

ten'don,  a  strong  cord  or  band  of  coimective  tissue 
to  which  an  end  of  a  muscle  is  attached. 

tis'sue,  one  of  the  kinds  of  material  of  which  an 
organ  is  composed. 

vil'lus,  a  hair-like  p''ojection  from  the  inner  surface 
of  the  small  intestine. 


;• 


INDEX 


PAUE 

AlMlomen 

10 

Air      .     . 

IOC. 

Air  sues  . 

• 

....    108, 

10» 

AlbuuK-ii 

47 

Alcohol 

»4 

appetitvT 

for 

104 

effect 

on 

mnsclcs     .     .     . 

40 

ii 

employment  .     . 

57 

ii 

stomacli    .     .     . 

74 

tk 

liver     .     .     .     . 

75 

4( 

heart    .     .     .     . 

90 

<( 

circulation     .     . 

1)0 

<( 

arteries      .     .     . 

i)l 

it 

blood    .     .     .     . 

91 

il 

lungs   .     .     .     . 

113 

II 

skin      .     .     .     . 

124 

tt 

heat  of  body  . 

124 

41 

brain     .     .     . 

137 

II 

nerves  .     .     . 

137 

II 

special  senses 

157 

liai)it 

of  drinking    .     . 

.     74 

life  insurance  and    .     . 

.  102 

mistai^cn  notions  about 

.   101 

poisonous  action  of 

.     99 

Aorta  . 

79 

Arteries 

78 

Artificial  drinks     .... 

.     55 

Baciibone 

.     25 

Batii   .     . 

.   122 

Beer 

95 

Bile 

.     70 

PAGB 

Bleeding 1«;{ 

Blood,  appearance  of      ...     83 
circulation  of       .     .     .  81,  87 

clotting  of 83 

corpuscles,  red    ....     83 
white     ...     84 

Bones 17 

appearance  of      .     .     ,     ,     20 

broken 10(5 

effect  of  age  on  ....  20 
experi-  ents  witii  .  .  .  180 
how  fastened  togetlier      .     21 

hygiene  of 2* 

what  they  arc  made  of      .     1!^ 

Brain !:'(► 

appearance  o(      .     .     .     .131 

blood  supply 13'^ 

experiments  with     .     .     .  192' 

hygiene  of 135 

Brandy >Mi 

Bread 53 

Breathing lOfl 

hygiene  of Ill 

Breastbone 28 

;  Bronchial  tubes 109 

Burns 1.59 

Capillaries 80 

Carbon  dioxide 94 

in  fermentation  ....     94 

in  breathing 110 

Cartilage 20 


■I 


202 


INDEX 


I'   > 
1^  i 


II    ! 


h  ! 


PAGE 

■Cartilage,  in  spine    ....     35 

in  nose 26 

Cells 12 

Cereals 53 

Ciyarcttu-smoking     .     .     .     .  lUO 

Circulation 81,  87 

experiments  with     .     .     .   18'J 

Clot  of  blood 83 

Clothing,  hygiene  of       ...     89 

on  fire 159 

Collar-bone 28 

Connective  tissue .     .     .     .  3^'    03 

Convulsions 161 

Cooking 54 

Corpuscles 83 

red 83 

white 84 

Cramps 163 

Digestion 00 

experiments 187 

in  mouth 01 

in  stomach 07 

in  intestine 69 

Disease 176 

Distilled  liqnor 95 

Dog  bites 163 

Drinks,  artificial 55 

Drowning 172 

Ear 148 

care  of 151 

foreign  bodies  in     .     .     .  165 

Eating,  rules  for 56 

Eggs 53 

Esophagus 05 

Exercise 39 


TAom 

Expiration 107 

Eye 153 

care  of 150 

foreign  bodies  in      .     .     .  165 

Fainting 160 

Fat 49 

Fernjentatiou 94 

Fits 161 

Food        45 

articles  of 53 

cooking  of 54 

experiments  with    .     .     .  184 

fat 49 

alcoholic  liquor  ....     97 

mineral 49 

not  easily  digested  ...     54 

proteid 40 

starch  and  sugar      ...     47 

taken  into  blood  tubes      .     73 

Foreign  bodies  in  nose  .     .     .  165 

in  ear 105 

in  eye 165 

in  throat 105 

Frostbite 103 

Fruit,  as  food 53 

Gastric  juice 08 

Gland 63 

salivary 03 

gastric 68 

liver 70 

pancreas 70 

sweat 118 

oil  gland  of  hair      .     .     .130 

tear 155 

Hair 120 


m 


INDEX 


2U3 


PA<1K 

Henring 148 

Ik'iut 85 

liow  it  works       .     .     .     .     8rt 

beat  of 88 

cflFoct  t)f  alcohol  on       .     .     90 

Heat  of  body 4"),  07 

how  re<»ulat«'(l     .     .     .     .119 

Hygiene  of  bath 123 

bones 28 

brain 1  •$•">,  UH 

breathing Ill 

clothing 89 

55 

151 


cooking 
ear  .  . 
eating  . 
eye  .  . 
hair  .  . 
lieart     . 


5((,  (55 

150 

121 

88,   90 

joints 32 

huigs 113 

muscles 39 


135, 
121, 


120 
137 

30 
124 

31 


nails      .... 

nerves  .... 

libs        .... 

skin      .... 

spinal  colninn 

teeth *>2 

ventilation 112 

work  and  plesisure       .     .  130 

Inspiration 107 

Intestinal  juice 71 

Intestine 69 

Iris mS 

.Joints 21 

Lacteals 73 


PAOI 

Lens  of  rye 15a 

liiganients    .     , 22 

\A\vi- 70 

Lungs 108 

changes  in  blood  in  .  .119 
changes  in  air  in  .  .  .119 
experiments  with     .     .     .   190 

Malt  liquors 95 

Marrow 21 

Meat 53 

Milk 52 

Mineral  i'ood 49 

Muscles 3;$ 

exercise  of 39 

expeiiincnts  with     .     .      .    18H 

fibres 38 

how  they  act       ....     35 

kinds 37 

sha]«'s 37 

why  they  CDntruct  ...     37 

Nails 120 

Narcotics 140 

Nerves 37.   132 

Nicotine 138 

Nose-bleed   .  1<'>4 

Nose,  foreign  bodies  in  .     .     .   l'>" 

Oil  glands 120 

Organ « 

Oxygen  in  air   ....      81,   100 
iu  blnod  ...      84.   110 

"  tissues  .     .     .      81,   84,   87 

Pancreas 70 

Pancreatic  juice 70 

Perspiration      ....    117,  119 
Poisons 1*"* 


J. 


204 


INDEX 


TACIE 

Proteids 40 

I'ulse ^^ 

Sacs,  air lOH,  10» 

Saliva W3 

Scalds 159 

Souses,  special 141 

Sight 152 

Skeleton 18 

Skin        115 

Skull       20 

Sleep 130 

Smell       146 

Snake  bites 102 

Spinilcoid       ....      20,  132 

Spine 25 

Sprain 32 

Starch 47 

effect  of  cooking      ...  54 

Sting  of  liees 102 

Stomach 07 

Suffocation 101 

Sugar 47 

Sunstroke 101 

Swallowing 65 


PAua 

Sweat  glands 114 

Tatstc 145 

Tears 155 

Teeth 01 

Tendons 38 

Tobacco       138 

cigarettts 139 

effect  on  muscles  ...  41 
"  "  digestion  ...  70 
"  "  heart  ....  92 
'<  "  throat  .  .  .114 
"  '•  nerves  .  .  .  138 
"      "   special  senses      .  157 

Touch 142 

Trunk » 

Veins 80 

Ventilation 112 

Villi "3 

Water 50 

Windpipe •'• 

Wine »6 

Whisky «» 

Work 130 


liS; 


^^ 


f    : 


CHOICE  READING 


FOR    CHILDREN    OF  THE    LOWER    SCHOOL    GRADES   IS    FOUND   IN   OUR 

STANDARD    LITERATURE    SERIES 

Among  the  volumes  having  such  adaptation  arc: 

FAIRY  TALES.    For  Second  School  Year 

Containing  eight  selections.  "The  Amhcr  Witch,"  "Little 
One  Eye,  Little  Two  Eyes,  and  Little  Three  Eyes,"  "Cin- 
derella," etc.  Selected  and  adapted  by  Prof.  Edward  R.  Shaw, 
New  York  University  School  of  Pedagogy.  102  pages.  Paper, 
12^  cents;  Cloth,  20  cents. 

ROBINSON  CRUSOE 

The  story  in  simple  form  for  young  readers,  by  Prof.  Edward 
R.  Shaw,  of  the  School  of  Pedagogy,  New  York  University. 
112  pages.     Illustrated.      Paper,  12 '-4  cents;  Cloth,  20  cer.ts. 

A  WONDERBOOK  FOR  GIRLS  AND  BOYS 

Four  complete  selections  from  Hawthorne.  '*  The  Golden 
Touch,"  "The  Paradise  of  Children,"  "The  Three  Golden 
Apples,"  and  "The  Miraculous  Pitcher."  121  pages.  Paper, 
I2i^  cents;  Cloth,  20  cents. 

BLACK  BEAUTY 

Miss  Sewcll's  autobiography  of  a  horse.  Black  Beauty  tells  in 
a  simple  and  charming  way  all  about  his  life.  It  is  edited  by 
Professor  Shaw,  of  the  School  of  Pedagogy,  New  York  Univer- 
sity.     217  pages.      Paper,  20  cents;  Cloth,  30  cents. 

Complete  list  of  Standard  Literature  Series — Fifty  Numbers, 
sent  cA  request. 


University  Publishing  Company 

27-29  WEST  JSd  STREET,  NETV  YORK 
UO  Summer  St.,  Boston  714-716  Canal  St^  New  Orteana 


GOLDEN-ROD  BOOKS 


GRADED   READINGS   FOR  SCHOOL  AND   HOME 


Mr 

pi 

m 


BY 

JOHN  H.  HAAREN,  A.M. 

Brightest  books  for  Elementary  Grades — To  supplement 
First,  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Readers. 

I.  RHYMES  AND  FABLES.    64  pages,  12  cents 

II.  SONQS  AND  STORIES  -    96  pages,  15  cents 

III.  FAIRY  LIFE 126  pages,  20  cents 

IV.  BALLADS  AND  TALES,  160  pages,  23  cenU 

Nursery  rhymes  and  fables.  Current  folk-lore  stories. 
Fairy  life  stories,  telling  of  the  little  people  who  were  once 
supposed  to  have  an  influence  on  hiimkn  afliirs.  Tales  or 
legend  and  romance. 

Attractive  illustrations.     Clear  presswork.     Artistic  binding. 

IP   YOU   ARE    LOOKING 
FOR   SOMETHING   BETTER 

this  series  will  interest  you, — presenting  an  interesting  colleaion 
of  children's  classics,  pithy  proverbs,  the  fables  which  are  the 
common  heritage  of  nie  Aryan  people,  with  the  cherished  nursery 
lore  of  generations. 

Corresponaence  invited. 


University  Publishing  Company 

17-29  WEST  23d  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


New  and  Enlarged  Edition 
of  a  Most  Attractive  Book 


The  work  presented  in  the  new  edition  of 

HOLMES'  FIRST  READER 

is  in  line  with  the  b'^st  modern  thought.  The 
book  consists  mainly  ^  a  carefully  g:  aded  scries 
of  bright  and  interesting  lessons  on  such  things 
as  American  children  like  to  think  and  talk  about. 
The  words  used  are  carefully  selected  from  the 
home  vocabulary. 

For  incidental  teaching  of  other  things,  special 
lessons  are  introduced  which  correlate  language 
study  with 

NUMBER,  Cr-  OR,  FORM 
AND      NATURE      STUDY 

In  these  lessons  many  attractive  pictures  in 
color  are  introduced. 

In  boards,  96  pages,  16  cents 
In  cloth,  120  pages,    20  cents 


University  Publishing   Company 

37-29  WEST  23d  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


it ' 


Maury's 
Elementary  Geography 


New  Edition— Revised 

Race  Types  in  Color        Landscapes  in  Color 

Relief  Maps  in  Color 

THIS  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  a  popular 
book  is  a  book  of  to-day.  The  plates  are 
new.  The  text  is  thoroughly  revised. 
The  Study  of  the  world  is  begun  at  the  home 
of  the  pupil,  and  other  countries  and  places  are 
presented  in  their  relation  to  it.  Colored  relief 
maps  picture  to  the  eye  the  physical  features  of 
the  con'-nents  in  illustration  of  the  political  maps 
and  the  text. 

Full-page  colored  illustrations  accentuate  the 
chief  thought  of  the  book, — the  Earth  as  the 
Home  of  Man, — by  giving  vivid  pictures  of 
the  people  of  each  continent  and  of  the  houses 
they  live  in.  The  numerous  illustrations  are 
from  photographs.  Each  picture  teaches  a 
definite  idea,  and  the  descriptive  text  under  it 
makes  the  picture  an  integral  part  of  the  lesson. 

Correspondence  invited.      Address 


University  Publishing   Company 


NEW  YORK 


BOSTON 


NEW  ORLEANS 


